
OassJLI ! 
Book ,Ck3 



Copyright^ \^o € 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 



Twenty-FovirtK Edition 



Locomotive Catechism 

By ROBERT GRIMSHAW, M.E. 



A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE LOCOMOTIVE, CONTAIN- 
ING 1, 600 QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS, COVER- 
ING THE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, REPAIR AND 
RUNNING OP ALE KINDS OP LOCOMOTIVES. 
BEING INTENDED AS EXAMINATION 
QUESTIONS FOR ENGINEERS, FIRE- 
MEN, AND ALL OTHER RAIL- 
ROAD MEN. 



Includes the latest Official Forms for Examination of 
Firemen for Promotion, and of Engineers for Em- 
ployment, and Detailed Descriptions of 
Compound Locomotives up to date. 



Illustrated by 222 Engravings and 12 Folding Plates. 

Twenty- FourtH Edition 



NEW YORK 

The Norman W. Heneey Publishing Co. 

132 Nassau Street 

1 9° 5' 




.APR 14 I9U5 



//3 929 



Copyrighted, 1896 

by 

ROBERT GRIMSHAW 

and 

Copyrighted, 1S9S 

by 

NORMAN W. HENLEY & CO, 



Macgowan & Slipper 

printers 

30 Beekman Street 

New York 

U.S. A. 



TO 

®l)eobore 3j\ €lg, 

Superintendent of Motive Power, Pennsylvania Railroad, 
IN APPRECIATION OF HIS 

ENGINEERING AND EXECUTIVE ABILITY 

AND HIS 

COURTESY AND MANLY QUALITIES. 



PREFACE. 



IT HAS for many centuries been the custom to give a book 
a preface at the last moment. For this there is probably- 
some good reason. Sometimes it affords the author oppor- 
tunity to excuse himself for his temerity, or to apologize for his 
shortcomings, or to repeat to the public the hopes which he and 
his publishers have so often exchanged, as to the book's success. 

On this occasion, however, there appears to be no great amount 
of presumption in doing for locomotive engineers and for those 
who wish to become such, what I have already done for stationary 
engineers, actual and prospective, and what the technical press 
rind those for whom my other Catechisms were written, have 
thanked me for doing. As for the hopes of success, there is not 
even that excuse, for the sales in advance of publication indicate 
that the publishers' venture will be profitable, and my own pride 
and author's royalties stand in no need of sympathy. There 
might remain the apology — but as I have done the best I could 
under the circumstances, and as angels could do no more (than 
their best, be it understood) that excuse for an excuse falls 
through. 

Yet there must be a Preface — and a reason therefor. 

Well, the reason why this is a Catechism instead of something 
else shall furnish the reason for the Preface. 

There are some classes of information which are like unto that 
triumph of modern ingenuity, the six-shooter, which, when 
wanted, is wanted like — well, like everything , and wanted right 
away. The Catechetical form gives each question (hurried or 
leisurely) its answer, very largely independent of any other ques- 
tion or matter, leaving out "ifs" and " buts " and "con- 
siderings." If there are only enough such questions and answers, 
and if the former are properly chosen (which includes being up to 
date) and the latter correct, this Catechism ought to be useful and 



satisfactory to those who buy it. As to the number of queries — as 
there are nearly thirteen hundred, the ground may be said to be 
reasonably well covered. As to their selection — novices and 
expert locomotive engine-runners have chosen many of them, and 
examining engineers many more. Many of the rest have come to 
me in the line of my regular work as consulting engineer in this 
country and abroad. As far as able I will answer, free by mail 
and promptly, any question of general interest concerning the 
locomotive, the answer to which does not appear in the current 
edition. 

There only remains the item of correctness in the replies. 
While I am a long way on the blind side of infallibility (and have 
the compositor and the proof reader as scapegoats anyhow, where 
errors are found), the reader ought to get out of the book his 
money's worth and his time's worth. 

I hope to make and keep, through this work, as many friends 
as by my other Catechisms — and friends are better than money 
any day — and that, through my efforts, my readers may increase 
in knowledge and in earning power. 

ROBERT GRIMSHAW. 



PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION. 
The success of previous editions warrants this issue in enlarged 
and improved form. The principal special features added are two 
Appendixes, with a separate index, the first giving the latest official 
Forms for Examination of Firemen for Promotion and of Engineers 
for Employment, and the second, detailed matter up to date, con- 
cerning compound locomotives, with instructions for running and 
for action in emergencies. There are also two large folding plates 
giving details of the famous "Webb" compounds on the L. & 
N. W. R. R. , England, and one showing how to effect general loco- 
motive repairs on the road. 

ROBERT GRIMSHAW. 



Locomotive Catechism. 



Q. What are the essential features of a loco- 
motive engine f 

A. Boiler, engines and running-gear. 

Q. What name is applied to the type of boiler 
usually employed for locomotives ? 

A. Horizontal tubular with internal fire-box. 

Q. What name might be applied to the class of 
engines usually employed on locomotives ? 

A. Twin horizontal double-acting high-pressure 
non- compound, non-condensing link-motion slide- 
valve engines. 

Q. Are all locomotive engines of the twin type f 

A. Nearly all ; there are some, however, that have 

the cylinder on one side of different diameter from that 

on the other ; and some have one cylinder on each 

side and one in the center ; some have four cylinders. 

Q. Are all locomotive engines horizontal? 

A. Nearly all ; but there are some that are slightly 
inclined downwards towards the crank-pin, and while 
nearly horizontal are not strictly so. 

Q. What is the meaning of the word " double- 
acting " ? 

A. An engine is double-acting when steam is ad- 
mitted on both sides of its piston, instead of on only 
one side as in a Westinghouse stationary engine. 



io LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. Are all locomotive engines double-acting f 
A. Yes. 

Q. What is the meaning of the term " high 
pressure " f 

A. It is a misnomer. The term " high pressure n 
came in when non-condensing engines were first made, 
to represent the difference between an engine which 
worked with high-pressure steam (either with or 
without a condenser, but principally without one) 
and one which worked usually by the aid of the 
vacuum produced by a condenser. 

Q. What is the difference between a compound 
and a non-compound engine ? 

A. In a compound engine the steam which is ex- 
hausted from one cylinder is passed into another, 
there to do more work as it expands further. In a 
non-compound engine the steam after being exhausted 
from one cylinder does not go into any other 
cylinder. 

Q. Is there any relation between compound en- 
gines and condensing engines ; that is, may an 
engine be both of these ? 

A. Yes ; many engines, particularly marine .ones, 
are both compound and condensing ; that is, the 
steam after being exhausted from one cylinder^ 
in which it has done work, passes into another cylin- 
der, there to do further work, and then goes into a 
condenser. 

Q. What is a condensing engine f 
A. One in which the steam, after having done 
work in a cylinder, is exhausted therefrom at a cer- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



ii 




^J FT 

Fig. i. Front End View, Pennsylvania R. R. Engine, Class " O.' 



12 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

tain pressure above vacuum or above trie atmosphere, 
and at a certain temperature, then passes into a cham- 
ber where it is cooled by contact with a jet or spray of 
cold water, or with sheets or tubes which are cooled 
by cold water circulating on the other side of such 
sheets or tubes. 

Q. Are most locomotives non-compound f 

A. Yes : but compounds have been used in Europe 

for some years; and in this country, since 1890, orders 

for them have been increasing. 

Q. Are all locomotives non-condensing? 

A. Yes ; it would be impossible, at least in the 
present state of the art of steam engineering, to carry 
on a train that would pay expenses, enough water to 
cool the exhaust from its engines. The time may 
come when by greater efficiency of the engine itself, 
calling for less steam per horsepower ; by decreased 
friction of the engine and of the train, calling for 
less horsepower ; and by increased efficiency of con- 
densers themselves, calling for less water per horse- 
power — a locomotive may be run with condensing en- 
gines ; but that time is not yet. 

Q. What is meant by a slide-valve ? 

A. A flat distributing valve which has a to- and- fro 
motion upon a flat seat, usually in a direction par- 
allel to that of the piston of the engine itself ; this 
valve having in its working face one or more cavities, 
usually serving as a passage for the exhaust. 

Q. Do all locomotives employ slide-valves ? 
A. Nearly every one that has been built has em- 
ployed a slide-valve of one sort or another. Attempts 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



13 




Fig. 2. Rear View, and Part Section through Cab, Pennsylvania 
R. R. Engine, Class " O." 



14 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

have been made to use other types, but in general they 
have been failures, not having the simplicity, dura- 
oility, and range of work of the ordinary slide. 

O. What is meant by a link-motion engine f 
A. One in which the valve (generally a slide) is 
moved by being connected with a bar or link (usually 
slotted) which receives a vibrating motion by connec- 
tion with a rod attached to a strap surrounding an 
eccentric disk set on the driving- shaft or axle of the 
engine. There are usually two such disks for each 
cylinder, to enable the engine to be reversed. The 
position of the link being varied, the amount of mo- 
tion that it imparts to the valve may be varied at 
will. 

Q. Are all locomotives of the link-motion type f 
A. Most of them are, but there is a system in 
which motion is imparted to the valve by an attach- 
ment to levers receiving their motion from the cross- 
head, or from the connecting-rod between the cross- 
head and the crank-pin ; the amount of motion thus 
given being variable by slight changes in the rela- 
tive and actual positions of the connecting levers. 

Q. What name is generally applied to an en- 
gine in which a reciprocating piston drives a 
crank-shaft or an axle ? 

A. A rotatory or rotative engine, as distinguished 
from a rotary engine, in which the piston or follower 
rotates. 

Q. What is the reason that locomotives have 
tivo or more cylinders f 

A. Because, with a single cylinder, an engine hav- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



15 




Fig. 3. Cross Section, Pennsylvania R. R. Engine, Class " O. 



16 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

ing a crank and connecting-rod is difficult to get 
started in case the crosshead, crank-pin and main- 
shaft center get in the same straight line ; and be- 
cause, in case there was but one engine, and that got 
crippled, it would be impossible to move the machine 
by its own power ; whereas with two, one side may 
be disconnected and the other one used. 

Q. Are the engines of all locomotives rever- 
sible f 

A. Necessarily so, by the demands of the service. 

Q. What are the essential parts of the boiler f 
A. They are usually six (sometimes seven) in num- 
ber ; cylinder, main shell, or barrel, waist (in many 
cases) , shell or outer fire-box, inner fire-box or fire- 
box proper, tubes, smoke-box, and stack or chimney* 

Q. What materials are used for boilers f 
A. Wrought iron and mild steel, the latter now 
coming into use to the exclusion of the former. 

Q. What are the advantages of steel for 
boilers ? 

A. It is stronger and more ductile, thus enabling a 
boiler to stand more pressure for a given weight, or 
to be lighter for a given pressure. 

Q. Describe in a general way the construction 
of the fire-box ? 

A. There is an inner and an outer shell, forming a 
double bottomless box of boiler-plate and having in 
front, through both walls, a doorway closed by a 
furnace-door. The bottom is formed by the grate, 
upon which the fuel is placed, and below which is the 




O O O 10 10 o| 
ilofesgs^sssao o o| 



o o o o o o o 
o o o o o o o 



Plate 



II. Central Lengthwise Vertical Section, Boiler of Pennsylvania R. R. Engine, Class "0. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



*7 





000 

' ° 

8 O°O^ o o 

i\ oxoSoSogg— -^ 

ogogogog^°--°>? 

Po2o9o°c 




Fig. 4. Cross Section, Pennsylvania R. R. Boiler, Class " O." 

ash-pan which receives the ashes that fall through 
the grate, and which is supplied with suitable damp- 
ers to regulate the amount of air which may be ad- 



IS 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



mitted under the grate. The top of the fire-box 
inner wall is usually flat and is called the crown- 
sheet ; the top of the outer shell or wall over this 
is sometimes convex and sometimes flat— usually the 
former. (See figures 5 and 6.) 

O. What materials are used for fire-boxes ? 

A. In this country, wrought iron, wrought steel, 
and Bessemer steel ; in Europe, principally copper. 

O. Will the same fire-box do for all kinds of 
fuel? 

A. Xo ; properly there should be a special design 
and construction for each kind of fuel. 

0. What kind of fire-box is 

A. One with a very thick grate, 
and having less provision for letting 
air in above the fire. 

Q. De the Milk 

p fire-bi 

A. It is shown in figures 6 and 
7. The furnace top slopes down- 
ward from the barrel of the boiler, 
and the crown-sheet is stayed with 
screw stays, except for a short 
distance back of the tube-plate : 
water-grates being used, as shown 
in the cut. 

O. What sort of fire-box is ordinarily :. 
for burning bituminous or soft coal ? 

A. One quite deep and rectangular, with vertical 




Fig. 6. Milkolland 
Fire-box. 




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2 -Cv,^ S\*N N^)> 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 19 

walls and a flat top very slightly sloping ; trie top 
of the box is flared out larger than the bottom, to 
permit the combustion gases to enter rows of tubes 
more nearly throughout the entire width of the 
boiler-barrel. 




Fig. 7. Milholland Fire-box, P. & R. R. R. 

Q. Why is it permissible and necessary to give 
a small deep fire-box for soft coal f 

A. Because soft coal first burns into coke, and 
this is spongy and easily broken up and admits the 
air. 

Q. What is the objection to extending the fire- 
box too far lengthwise of the engine ? 

A. It makes firing difficult. 

Q. What class of fire-box is necessary for burn- 
ing wood ? 

A. One that is very deep. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. What is the Woo t ten fire-box f 
A. It is a wide and shallow fire-box, and has a 
combustion-chamber, and a brick bridge across the 
fire-box end of this chamber; is above the frames, 
and extends over the rear driving-axle. 

Q. For what class of fuel is it especially 
desirable ? 

A. Fine or buckwheat coal. 

Q. Where is it most used ? 

A. On the Philadelphia and Reading road. 




and 9. Buchanan Fire-box, C. V. R. R. 



Q. What is the peculiarity of the Buchanan 
fire-box, and where is it vised? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 21 

A. It is used very largely on the N. Y. C. & H. R. 
R. R., and its peculiarity consists principally in the 
use of a water-table, as shown in figure 8, inclining 
from the back plate downwards to the tube-plate just 
below the bottom row of tubes, dividing the box into 
an upper and a lower compartment. Through it 
there is a round opening about 18 inches in diame- 
ter, through which must pass all gases of combustion, 
smoke and air, the intention being to cause them to 
mingle before they strike the tubes. There are also 
four tubes in the front end and four in the back, just 
above the fire, to supply air above the grate. Each 
of these has a conical nozzle through which there 
may be passed a jet of steam which will draw in a 
current of air. 

Q. What is the advantage of having the fire-box 
between the axles f 

A. To get a deep box, as for soft coal. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of having the 
fire-box above the axles f 

A. That it necessitates raising the entire boiler, and 
thus raising the centre of gravity of the machine. 

Q. How is extra steam-room given without 
having to carry the water undesirably low ? 

A, Very often by a "wagon- top," apart above 
the fire-box in which the outer shell is raised from 
half a foot to a foot and a half above the barrel 
proper, the parts of different diameter being con- 
nected by a tapering portion. Besides this, the 
steam-dome is added for the same purpose. (See 
figure 5.) 



22 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What is the advantage of having the top of 
the wagon-top considerably higher than the barrel 

of the boiler ? 

A. It gives more steam-room, and, by permitting 
the use of more tubes, allows more beating- surface 
than would be possible with the flush-top boiler ; 
also there is more room for workmen inside the 
boiler, over the crown-sheets. 

Q. Why is the furnace-door sheet often sloped 
so as to make the furnace shorter, and the water- 
leg wider, at the top than at the bottom ? 

A. In order to give a sloping surface from which 
the steam may part more readily than from one 
which is vertical ; and also to give more effective 
heating-surface. 

Q. Is this same principle applied to the side 
sheets ? 

A. Sometimes. 

Q. Why has the ftimace door a wider opening 
in the furnace than in the boiler-head ? 

A. To give the fireman a better chance to distrib- 
ute the fuel. 

Q. Where are removable stay-bolts for crown- 
bars desirable ? 

A. In the row nearest the tube-plate. 

Q. When do fire-boxes usually crack — while 
on the road or after a trip f 
A. Seldom on the road. 
Q. To what does this point f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 23 

A. To the desirability of arranging, as the Penn- 
sylvania Railroad does in some ronnd-houses, station- 
ary boilers with pipe connections with each stall, so 
that when an engine comes in and the fire is drawn, 
she is kept hot nntil ready to be fired up again. The 
same thing is done on the C, N. O. & T. P. R. R. 

Q. How may fire-boxes be lagged ? 

A. On the L. S. & M. S. Railway a sheet of as- 
bestos was placed next the hot surface, and over that 
was placed a covering of hair felt one inch thick, the 
whole being kept in place by a sheeting of kalamein 
or planished iron ; the boiler-heads being done the 
same way. 

Q. What sort of strain is there on the fire- 
box f 

A. A strain tending to crush it in. 

Q. What resists the tendency to crush in the 
fire-box side sheets ? 

A. To a very slight extent their own stiffness ; to 
a very great extent the stay-bolts, extending from 
the inside fire-box sheets to the outside fire-box 
sheets. (See figure 10.) 

Q. What arrangement should be made with 
stay-bolts or tie-bolts of fire-boxes f 

A. These should be tubular, or there should be a 
small hole lengthwise in the outside end, to a depth 
extending beyond the thickness of the plate, so that 
if the bolt breaks there will be a leak at the break, to 
give warning. 

Q. How are these stay-bolts fastened ? 



24 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. In some engines they are riveted over ; in 
others they are screwed in. 

Q. How should stay-bolts be fastened into the 
side sheets ? 

A. Their ends should be screwed in and then 
riveted over. 

Q. Suppose that a fire-box has on it a pressure 
of 1 60 pounds per square inch, and that the stay- 
bolts are four inches between centres ; what will 
be the strain on each bolt ? 

A. There will be 16 square inches held by each 
bolt, making 19,600 pounds that the bolt will have 
to hold. 

Q. What is the object of riveting over the ends 
of the stay-bolts ? 

A. To u make assurance doubly sure " ; because 
sometimes the screw-threads strip, and again the 
bulging of the sheets from undue expansion will 
tend to open out the holes, leaving the entire strain 
on the bolt-heads. If there were no heads the bolts 
would then be useless. 

Q. What kind of stay-bolts are used in England 
for fire-box walls? 
A. Copper. 

Q. How are the bottom edges of the fire-box 
side sheets fastened ? 

A. Usually there is a mud- ring as thick as the 
water-leg between the inner and outer sheets ; and 
rivets extend through the outer sheet, the mud- ring, 
and the inner sheet. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



25 




Fig. 10. Cross Section, Pennsylvania R. R. Engine, Class " O. 



^6 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. Is there any other way of making the joint 
than by a mud-ring ? 

A. Instead of the solid mud-ring as in figure n, 
there may be a ring of boiler-plate flanged over so as to 
have a section as in figure 12, with both the inner and 
the outer sheets riveted to this. 





Solid Mud Ring. Fig. 12. Flanged Mud Ring. 



Q. What other name is given to the mud-ring ? 
A. The foundation- ring. 

Q. What is the most usual type of fire-box 
door ? 

A. Simply a plain flap hinged on the left, outside 
the doorway, and having a chain by which to raise 
its latch and swing it open and shut. 

Q. What is the objection to this type of fur- 
nace door ? 

A. That, when it is opened, cold air rushes into 
the flues and causes imperfect combustion and visible 
smoke, besides cracking plates. 

Q. How is this remedied ? 

A. In part by placing an inverted shovel at an an- 
gle inside, so as to throw the current of air down- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



27 



wards on the fuel instead of letting it go through the 
flues ; still more thoroughly by a sheet-iron denecting- 
plate placed on the inside of the box and hinged at 
its upper edge, with a contrivance by which it may 
he thrown up when coal is to be laid on. 

Q. Describe the Hudson fttrnace-door deflec- 
tor? 

A. It is shown in figures 13 and 14. D is a 
deflector hung from a hook H attached to the fire- 




Fig. 13. Hudson Furnace-door Deflector. 

box over the furnace door; a lever L is fastened 
to the deflector, by which to move it out of the way 



28 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



when coal is thrown on the fire. The position of the 
deflector is regulated by the lever and a latch L at its 




Hudson Furnace-door Deflector. 



upper end. A pair of sliding doors is usually em- 
ployed in connection with the deflector. 



How can the fire 
is not running and 



?£ urged when the en- 
there is no exhaust 



gine 
blast 

A. By a jet of steam sent up the chimney from 
a pipe connected with the steam-space of the boiler 
and controlled by the blower-cock. Also, in some en- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 29 

gines, as on the New York Central Railroad, there 
are steam and air jets in the fire-box above the grate. 

Q, How does the blower act ? 

A. Its nse is to direct a jet of live steam np the 
stack, causing, by friction between that jet and the 
surrounding air in the stack, a current of air to pass 
through the tubes to supply the deficiency. 

Q. When should the blower be used f 
A. In starting a fire ; in clearing out dust and 
ashes in cleaning fire ; in preventing black smoke at 
times ; in enabling certain inside repairs to be made 
while the fire is burning. 

Q. When should the blower not be used ? 

A. When the fire is drawn or dead, as that would 
cause cold air to be drawn into the hot tubes and 
make them leak. 

Q. Where is a good place to put the blower dis- 
charge ? 

A. Around the top of the exhaust-pipe. 

Q. What are the chief uses of the ash-pan ? 

A. To prevent cinders and burning coals being 
dropped where not desirable, and to enable the 
draft to be completely checked by closing its doors 
or dampers. 

O. How are the ash-pan dampers worked f 

A. By a bell-crank and rod communicating with a 
handle in the cab. 

Q. What is the best section for grate-bars ? 
A. They should be wider at the top than below, to 



3° 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



lessen the liability of clogging the spaces between 
them with ashes or cinders. 

Q. What class of grates do we find used for 
wood ? 

A. They have stationary bars, ordinarily placed 
close together. 

Q. What difference is there between grates for 
burning coal and those for wood f 

A. Those for coal are often made so that they may 
be shaken. 



^==f^==f^=^=f^==^ : =^¥ I ^=^ 



Fig. 15. Rocking Grate. 



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J 


n ii 11 11 11 11 » 11 11 11 11 11 11 |i _ii 


Am, isss. W 



Fig. 16. Rocking Grate. 

Q. Which takes the larger grate, hard or soft 
coal f 

A. Hard, because the fire must be shallower. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



3* 



Q. What is the character of grate usually em- 
ployed for anthracite or hard coal? 

A. It is usually long, and has, instead of ordinary 



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OOOO O-OO'OO ooo 
ooo oo ooo oooo 








1 ['■ 1 


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oooooouuo^o 




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Figs. 17, 18 and 19. Water-grate for Bituminous Coal. 

grate-bars, tubes in water- connection with the wate, 
space so as to permit a circulation in them to keep- 
them from melting or burning, and to lessen the lia- 
bih'tv of mud settling in the lower part at that end. 



32 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 







bo 

a 

o 
o 



bo 



/. i?<zr. .?. Frame. 3. Connecting-bar. 4. Lever. 5. Lever-rod. 
6. Lever-handle. 7. Drop-plate. 6 Drop-plate Rod. 9. Drop-plate 
Crank. 10. Drop-plate Crank-handle. 11. Drop-plate Crank- 
bearing. 



>r 



WESTINGHOUSE NINE-AND-ONE-HALF INCH IMPROVED AIR PUMP 

Plate III. 




n*i 



CJ I88T 64 

Fig. 2 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 33 

The fire may be drawn by removing some solid bars 
which replace every fourth or fifth tube and project 
clear through both walls of the back end of the fire- 
box, through tubes T (fig. 7) provided for that pur- 
pose, and have on their back ends rings by which to 
draw them out. At the front end they rest on a bear- 
ing-bar. Figures 6 and 7 show the type used on 
the Philadelphia and Reading road. 

Q. How are the tubes of a water-grate made 
tight? 

A. By being calked into the inside plate at the 
front and back end of the fire-box. 

Q. How large a grate is needed to burn one ton 
of coal per hour f 

A. About eight square feet. This of course de- 
pends largely upon the fuel ; anthracite coal taking 
more grate surface than soft coal or wood. 

Q. How is the fire removed from the fire-box ? 

A. In soft-coal engines, by a drop door held up by 
arms controlled by a lever outside the fire-box ; when 
this lever is turned, the arms which hold up the drop 
door are removed, and the weight brings down the 
door so that the coals may be taken out by a suitable 
opening, and, by raising the ash-pan damper, may be 
raked out. (See figures 24 and 25.) 

Q. What material is usually employed for 
ordinary grate-bars ? 

A. Cast iron. 

Q. What material is usually employed for 
water-grates ? 

A. Wrought iron. 



34 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



k^^^^<A<AlV^VA<Akl<Ak»A<AlkiAiAl'A 



^VAWA^VA^lAVAV^VA'A'A'v'v'AVV 



on 



no3 



o 



□ 



□ 



f< 



orf 



SSSSSSSSSSSS^\N\SS\SS\SSSSSSS\SS'sSS^^; 



.\\VA\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ 



Figs. 22 and 23. Plain Grate for Wood. 
1. Bar. 2. Dead-plate, j. End-holder. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATKCHISM. 35 

Q. Are water-tube grates always made with 
the tubes in one horizontal plane ? 

A. No. In some cases some of them — say every 
fourth one — are raised above the rest. 

Q. What is the objection to the method of put- 
ling water-tubes in from the front end ? 

A. They are more difficult to get at for cleaning. 

0. What is the use of rocking grates ? 

A. To clear the fire where there is used bituminous 
coal containing material which causes it to clinker, 
or otherwise interfere with its free combustion. The 
shaking or rocking grate breaks up the clinkers or 
other foreign or residuary matters that may collect 
on the grate, and which tend to choke the draft be- 
tween the bars ; causes such matter to work down 
between the bars into the ash-pan ; and also serves to 
distribute the fuel evenly over the grate. 

Q. Of what material are locomotive tubes 
made ? 

A. In America, of iron and of Bessemer steel ; in 
Euiope, of these metals and also of copper and of 
brass. 

Q. When was the tise of copper and brass 
tubes abandoned in this country ? 

A. Only after coal was substituted for wood as 
fuel. 

Q. What are the usual dimensions of locomo- 
tive flues or tubes ? 

A. Ten to twelve feet long, and two inches in 
diameter. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 




Figs. 24 and 25. Plain Grate tor Soft Coal. 



1. Bar. 2. Dead-plate. 3. End-holder. 4. Drop-plate. 5. Drop- 
plate Handle. 6. Drop-plate Handle Support. 7. Drop-plate 
Shaft. 8. Drop-plate Shaft Bearing. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



37 



O. Why not tcse tubes of a larger diameter ? 

A. Because it is best to divide the current of com- 
bustion-gases into small streams each of which has 
its outer surface next a surface of metal on the other 
side of which there is water to be heated. If the 
tubes were four inches in diameter, nearly all the 
heat of the central portions (say two inches in diam- 
eter) would be wasted, not having time to be deliv- 
ered to the metal of the tubes and through to the 
water on the other side. 

Q. Why not have tubes only one inch in diam- 
eter and give still more heating-surface ? 

A. Because there would be too great liability of 
clogging up, and also too much friction between the 
gases and the tube-surface. 




Fig. 26. Cross Section, Pennsylvania R. R. Boiler, Class " O." 

Q. What is the disadvantage of excessive united 
cross section of tubes ? 

A. Too slow draft, causing deposit of soot. 



38 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

O. What is the disadvantage of too small 
united cross area of tubes ? 

A. Obstruction to the draft ; besides which the 
tubes are more liable to be clogged up with cinders, 
and there is less space left when they are clogged. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of too long tubes f 
A. They vibrate too much and are liable to leak. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of too short 
tubes ? 

A. The combustion gases get into the smoke-box 
before they have parted with enough of their heat, so 
the engine has both its capacity and its duty lessened. 

Q. How are the tube-ends fixed steam-tight in 
the plates? 

A. By expanding them. 

Q. Are any additional means employed to ren- 
der the tube-joints tight f 

A. Usually there is a ferrule or thimble, either of 
copper, between the tube end and the edge of the 
hole, or of cast iron or steel, made tapering and 
driven in so as to force out the tube-end. 

Q. What is the objection to the latter system of 
inside ferrules ? 

A. That it lessens the area of the tube orifices, and 
consequently diminishes the draft. 

Q. What is the result of stoppage of the flues f 
A. There are two results : (i) there is less heat- 
ing-surface, and (2) there is less draft to enable 
what heating-surface there is to be of use. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 39 

Q. How much heating-surface is needed to 
evaporate six to eight tons of water per hour 
with the consumption of one ton of coal per 
hour ? 

A. From 1,000 to 1,500 square feet. 

Q. Is there any other reason, besides the greater 
proportionate amount of heating-surface, for 
having small tubes ? 

A. They may be made thinner to stand the same 
external pressure on them ; this of course makes 
them cheaper, lessens the weight of the engine, and 
makes the engine raise steam rather more quickly. 

Q. Why is the tube-plate made thicker than 
the shell? 

A. Largely by reason of its being greatly weakened 
rjy the large number of holes cut in it, and partly 
because it has to sustain half the weight and sag of 
the tubes. 

Q. Are tubes best arranged in vertical or 
in horizontal rows ? 

A. In vertical, some think, as that gives the water 
better chance to ascend among them. Others again 
think that it is no advantage to have the water rise 
too fast ; that it is better to have it delayed a little 
in its passage upward so as to be longer in con- 
tact with the tubes. But then it must be remem- 
bered that the bottoms of the tubes are not their 
hottest portion. 

Q. How are the tubes made tight in the flue- 
sheet ? 

A. By being expanded from within so as to bear 



4o LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

hard and steam-tight against the reamed edges of the 
hole ; also by being spread or beaded over on their 
onter ends, which have been left slightly projecting. 
This also gives a lengthwise stay to the sheets. 

Q. Which is more effective ; a square foot of 
heating- surface in the fire-box, or an equal area in 
the tubes ? 

A. That in the fire-box. 

Q. Which is the more effective ; a foot of tube 
length in the front of the boiler or one in the 
rear f 

A. One in the rear, each successive foot in length 
being less effective than the one back of it, nearer the 
fire. 

Q. Hoiv is the crown-sheet kept from being 
forced down by the steam-pressure between it and 
the top of the boiler f 

A. By sling- stays or by crown-bars. 

Q. In what direction do sling-stays extend? 

A. As nearly as possible at right angles to the sur- 
faces which they connect. (See figure 5.) 

Q. What is the objection to the system of stay- 
ing crown-sheets by sling-stays ? 

A. That in order to be of the greatest effectiveness, 
they should be perpendicular to both the surfaces 
which they connect. Now ordinarily, if they are at 
right angles to the crown- sheet they will be oblique to 
the shell, except right in the center line of the boiler. 

Q. How can this trouble be got around without 
discarding sling- stays ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



41 



A. By making the boiler- shell over the crown- 
sheet flat and parallel therewith, so that each stay- 






•Irn 






1 1 


isiitl 





Figs. 27 and 28. Belpaire Fire-box, Matanzas R. R. 

bolt will be at right angles to both the surfaces which 
it connects, as shown in figures 27 and 28. 

Q. What name is given to this type of fire-box ? 
A. The Belpaire. 

Q. What other advantage has the Belpaire 
fire-box ? 

A. That its sides can spring a little when the inner 
sheet is heated more than the outer one. 

Q. What is the advantage of having the top of 
a fire-box curved ? 

A. To enable the use of more radial stays than 
would otherwise be possible, and to give a good sur- 
face for the reception of the radiated heat. The 
curved crown- sheet gives more full threads than the 
flat one, and also affords less lodgment for impurities 
in the water. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of curved crown- 
sheets ? 



42 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. They necessitate throwing ont too many tubes 
in the upper corners of the furnace, or else increasing 
the boiler-diameter. 

Q. Where is the Belpaire fire-box undesirable ? 
A. On roads where there is bad water, by reason 
of its affording too good a lodgment for scale. 

Q. Should a crown-sheet be perfectly level ? 

A. No, it should have such inclination that when 
the engine is on a level the back end will be lower 
than the front so as to keep water on the back part 
after the front end may have got exposed. 

Q. Why does the crown-sheet of a long furnace 
slope towards the back f 

A. To keep it covered in running down a very 
steep grade. 

Q. Does not this make it dangerous for the front 
end of the sheet in running up a steep grade ? 

A. No, as the front end is nearer the centre of 
length of the boiler, it is not so apt to be uncovered 
as the back end. 

Q. What is the action of the crown-bars ? 
A. They serve as trusses to keep the top sheet 
from buckling in. (See figure 7.) 

Q. How are the crozun-bars fastened ? 

A. They have at each end, feet resting on the side- 
sheet seam, and holding them slightly above the 
sheet ; they are double, and between them and the 
sheet is a thimble through which, as well as through 
the sheet and the bar, there goes a bolt ; then the 
bars are slung from the boiler-shell ; so that the bars 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



45 



support the crown-sheet and the boiler-shell holds up 
the bars. 

Q. What is the advantage of the crown-bar 
system of supporting crown-sheets ? 

A. Greater ease of repair than where direct stays 
are used. 

Q. What are the disadvantages of the crown- 
bar system ? 

A. It affords good chances for scale and mud to 
collect on the crown- sheet, is heavy and expensive, 
and the bars take up considerable of the water room 
on the sheet ; is not easy to inspect, and does not 
afford good facilities for washing out mud and scale. 

Q. What is the advantage of having the crown- 
bar bolts and the holes through which they pass, 
slightly tapering ? 

A. They are more readily taken out in case leaks 
occur. 

Q. What is the advantage of having crown-bar 
washers tapering towards the sheet ? 




Fig. 29. Crown-stay Bolts and Nuts, Pennsylvania R. R., Class "O." 

A. It gives more surface of the sheet in contact 



44 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

with, the water, and lessens trie liability to overheating- 
aronnd the bolt. 

O. How are the flat ends of locomotive boilers 
kept from being bulged out or blown out by the 
pressure within ? 

A. By either stay-rods or gusset stays (sheet stays) 
carrying to the cylindrical part some of the strain 
that is put on the flat part. Tubes also act as length- 
wise stays. (See plate 2.) 

Q. What may be said about the crow s feet or 
other devices by which to attach a stay to a shell 
or head ? 

A. They should be as strong as the stays them- 
selves. 

Q. How is the brick arch placed, and what are 
its functions ? 

A. It is built across the front of the fire-box, from 
side to side of the box ; and extends forward and 
upward, forming a diagonally-placed baffle-plate 
above the grate, preventing the flames and gases of 
combustion from the front of the grate going directly 
into the lower tubes and compelling them first to flow 
backward and upward, thus not only giving the 
gases time to get more thoroughly aflame, but caus- 
ing more intimate mixture. Besides this its fire- 
bricks get white hot and tend to assist the combustion 
when new coal is put on, especially with bituminous 
coal. It lessens black smoke by highly heating 
the unconsumed products of combustion ; also shields 
the flue- sheet and the flues from sudden influx of air 
when the furnace door is opened. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 45 

Q. How are the bricks of the brick arch held 
up ? 

A. By bent tubes secured into the crown-sheet and 
the tube-sheet, thus making water, communication 




Figs. 30 and 31. Brick Arch on Water-tubes. 




Figs. 32 and 33. Brick Arch on Water-tubes. 

between the water-leg and the water on the crown- 
sheet ; or by tubes between the front and the back 
leg. (See figures 30 to 33, inclusive.) 



4 5 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. Have any experiments been made as to 
measuring the exact value of the brick arch ? 

A. Yes. Mr. J. N. Lauder of the O. C. R. R. 
took two engines of the same dimensions and in about 
the same condition, and put them to run alternately 
on the same trains ; one having the Pennsylvania 
Railroad style of brick arch supported by water- 
tubes, and the other a plain fire-box. They ran 
opposite each other for two months, and care was 
taken to see that no extra work was done by either 
of the engines that would lessen the value of the per- 
formance report. For one month the engine with 
the plain fire-box ran 50.87 miles per ton of coal ; 
that with the brick arch ran 58.22. For the preced- 
ing month the advantage was about the same. The 
train- weight w r as 160 tons besides the engine ; the 
run, 36 miles, made in 52 minutes, with eight or ten 
u slows" and several " know-nothing" stops. The 
coal consumption was 34.3 pounds of coal per train 
mile with the brick arch, and 39.3 with the plain 
fire-box, showing about four per cent, saving. 

Q. Have English engines as a general rule 
more or less heating and grate-surface than 
Americans ? 

A. Less. The Gladstone, on the L. B. and S. C. 
Railway, has only 1485 square feet of total heating 
surface and 20.65 square feet of grate (with a ratio 
of 72 to 1). The maximum indicated horsepower 
of the Gladstone being 1040, we have 50.35 horse- 
power per square foot of grate, and 1.43 square feet 
of heating- surface per horsepower, or 0.7 horse- 
power per square foot of heating surface. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



47 



Q. What precaution should be taken in making 
a locomotive boiler, as to its curve f 

A. The shell should be to a true circle, else the 
tendency of the steam-pressure will be to make it of 
true circular section, and that will spring things out 
of shape, besides not doing the seams any good. 

Q. What is the use of the smoke-box ? 

A. To afford an easy passageway in which the 



"W 



: 




????77?&V f '^- 



Fig. 34. Smoke-box and Fittings, (Lengthwise View.) 
/. Exhaust-nozzle. 2. Netting. 3. Deflecting -plate. 4. Deflect- 



ing-plate Slide. 5. Spark-ejector. 
Exh a ust-th im dies . 



6. Cleaning-hole and Cap. 



Combustion-gases may turn from a horizontal to a ver- 
tical course in leaving the tubes and entering the 
stack •; and to serve as a receptacle for solid particles 



4-S LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

that have been drawn along through the tubes from 
the fire-box ; also to serve as a place in which the 
exhaust-nozzles may be given proper inspection and 
adjustment ; to keep the live steam hot on its way to 
the cylinders, and to prevent the exhaust being 
chilled on its way and losing its power of entraining 
sir with it. 

Q. Of what is the front of the smoke-box 
usually made ? 

A. Of cast iron, having in its centre a large 
outward- opening door which permits inspection 
and repair of parts inside the smoke-box. (Figure 

34-) 

Q. How are engines with short front ends 
prevented from throwing too many cinders ? 

A. Usually by diamond stacks having cones and 
nettings against which the sparks and cinders are 
thrown and which deflect them and throw them 
down, while permitting the gases of combustion to 
go out. 

Q. What is the objection to a very deep cast- 
iron cinder-box f 

A. If it once gets afire inside it may get red hot and 
crack or break off. 

Q. How may the draft be lessened, although 
the engine is running with a sharp exhaust, 
without opening the fire-door ? 

A. By a chimney-damper as shown in figures 35 and 
36. It admits air at the base of the stack, thus doing 
away with the necessity for opening the fire-door 
and admitting cold air into the box. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



49 



Q. What is the object of the a extension arch" 
u extended smoke-box' or " long front end" f 

A. To give room for netting and to act as a dead- 
chamber to aid in collecting sparks and cinders. 




Figs. 35 and 36. I y uttgens' Damper for Coal-burners. 

Q. How is the draft regulated in an engine 
with a " long front end " ? 

A. By an adjustable apron or diaphragm extending 



5 o LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

forward and downward from the front tube- sheet, 
slightly above the tubes, about half way down. 

Q. If the exhaust-nozzles lie above and back of 
the wire netting, as in the long front end, how 
can they be got at for adjustment or repair f 

A. By a man-hole or hand-hole in the netting ; 
this being covered with netting in ordinary conditions. 

Q. How is the material in the bottom of the 
smoke-box removed f 

A. Through a discharge-pipe in each side of the 
bottom of the box, controlled by a valve or slide ; 
being blown out by a steam- jet. 

Q. What is the effect on the heaviness of fire 
required, of the long front end ? 

A. A light fire may be carried without danger. 

Q. What effect has the long front end on the 
draft ? 

A. It weakens it. 

Q. What is the temperature in a smoke-box ? 
A. It runs from 250 to 650 or even 700 F. 

Q. How is the locomotive boiler given the 
strong draft that distinguishes it from other 
types of boiler ? 

A. When not running, by the blower. When 
running, by the exhaust from the cylinders escaping 
through exhaust-nozzles or blast-orifices, discharging 
parallel with the axis of the stack so as to draw the 
gases of combustion by friction w 7 ith the steam- jets 
which they discharge. Of course the greater the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 51 

steam-consumption the greater the draft and the 
greater the steam-generation by reason of the greater 
frequency or volume of the exhaust. 

Q. How is the draft regulated in an engine 
with a short front end? 

A. By a lift-pipe or petticoat-pipe between the 
nozzles and the stack, and which is larger than the 
nozzles and smaller than the stack. Raising and lower- 
ing this regulates the draft. 

Q. What is the action of the exhaust-blast in 
making increased draft f 

A. The jet of exhaust steam is supposed to be of 
cylindrical section ; whether it is or not it has not 
smooth sides and there is a certain amount of friction 
of the air in the stack, against it. As it moves up 
it carries with it by friction a certain quantity of that 
air, the place of which must be supplied by other air. 
As the easiest way from which air can get into the 
stack to supply the place of that which the blast has 
drawn out, is through the grate, the fire-boxes and 
the tubes, we have a supply of air entering the fire- 
box through the grate, at every puff of the exhaust. 

Q. Of what material are the exhaust-pipes 
made ? 

A. Of cast iron. 

Q. Is there usually \ one nozzle or tzuo ? 

A. Two ; although there have been a number of 
plans by which the two blasts may be converged into 
one orifice ; as for instance by one of them being 
conducted through an annular pipe surrounding the 
other. 



52 JvOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. How are the exhaust orifices varied in 
diameter ? 

A. The nozzles are often removable, being fastened 
on by set-screws so that they may be readily taken off 
or attached. There are also what are known as vari- 
able exhausts, by which the diameter of the exhaust 
orifice may be changed without change of the nozzle 
itself ; but these are usually too complicated. 

Q, What is the disadvantage of too large 
exhaust ? 

A. Insufficient draft without the use of the blower, 
which of course calls for a consumption of live 
steam. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of too small ex- 
haust orifices ? 

A. Back pressure in the cylinders. 

Q. How has it been attempted to draw the com- 
bustion-gases from the lower ranks of tubes 
with the exhaust orifices at the level of the tipper 
ranks ? 

A. By what is known as the vortex nozzle, which 
has a central passage around which the exhausts dis- 
charge, and through which the friction of the inside 
of the annular exhausts draws combustion-gases from 
below ; while the friction of the outside of the same 
annular exhausts draws the combustion-gases from 
the upper ranks of tubes. 

Q. What is the advantage of a double-nozzle 
exhaust-pipe ? 

A. That neither cylinder interferes with the other. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



53 



Q. What is the disadvantage of the double 
nozzle ? 

A. That the blast is not quite concentric with the 
stack. 

Q. How can these troubles be got around f 
A. Usually by having one nozzle surrounding the 
other. 

Q. Should the exhaust nozzle be larger for a 
hard or for a soft coal fire ? 
A. For hard coal and thin fires. 

Q. Is it feasible to redttce the blast-pressure 
and still have a locomotive boiler generate enough 
steam for practical purposes ? 

A. Yes ; as it is now too much dependence is 
placed on the exhaust ; and in England and in this 
country, it has been found that compound engines 
with soft blast have given just as good capacity and 
duty as high-pressure non- expansive engines with 
sharp blast. 



JZL jQO. 



Figs. 37 and 38. A Single and a Double Exhaust Nozzle. 

Q. As between the two kinds of exhaust nozzles 



54 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

shown in A and B, figures 37 and 38, what are 
the relative advantages and disadvantages ? 

A. Style A has the advantage of giving a central 
jet through the stack, but does not divide one cyl- 
inder from the other exactly, so that the exhaust of 
one may slightly influence that from the other. Style 
B thoroughly divides the exhaust from one cylinder 
from that of the other, but it does not give a central jet. 

O. What is the object of the stack ? 

A. To make a draft and to remove the hot com- 
bustion-gases, ani cinders to a height which will 
enable them to clear the train and other objects near 
the ground-level. 

Q. What is the object of making the stack 
larger at the top than at the bottom, when it is 
so done ? 

A. It makes a better passage for the combustion- 
gases and at the same time make it possible to throw 
sparks to a less distance ; thus it helps the draft. 

Q. What kind of a stack is usually given 
with the long front end ? 

A. A plain cylindrical stack like a straight pipe. 
(Figure 39.) 

Q. What is the diamond stack ? 

A. It has a central pipe above the axial line of 
which there is a cast iron cone-like deflector, against 
which the sparks and cinders strike, which act causes 
many of them to fall, besides lessening the force with 
which the others strike the wire netting that is put 
over the top of the pipe in order to keep live cinders 
getting into the open air. Below the cone there is a 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



55 



chamber into which the sparks may fall and where 
they may cool. (See figure 40.) 




Figs- 39 an <* 4°. Smoke-stacks. 

/. Base. 2. Base-flange. 3. Cone. 4. Top. 5. Netting. 6. Body. 
7. Chamber. 8. Inside Pipe. 9. Hand-hole and Plate. 

Q. What gives its name to the diamond stack ? 
A. The outline of its top. 

Q. What name is given to the conical plate 
that is suspended in the axis of the diamond 
stack, near its top ? 

A. A spark- deflector or cone. 

Q. For what classes of fuel is the diamond 
stack specially adapted ? 



56 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



A. For bituminous coal and for wood, when the 
smoke-box is small. 

Q. What may be said of the annular space 
between the two cylindrical shells of the stack for 
wood-burning engines ? 

A. It must be wider than for other fuel, to receive 
sparks. 

Q. What other form of stack besides the 
diamond stack is used for burning wood f 




Fig. 41. Stack for Wood. 



A. The form shown in figure 41, in which there 
is a very wide double cone- top surrounding a cen 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 57 

tral cylindrical pipe, a cone deflector, and a central wire 
netting. The space around the central pipe serves 
as a receptacle for cinders and is supplied with a 
hand-hole through which they may be removed. 

Q. Of what material are smokestacks usually- 
made f 

A. For ordinary requirements the outsides are of 
sheet iron ; sometimes with cast-iron tops to prevent 
wear by abrasion. Where the climate is very damp 
and warm, copper is sometimes used for the stack * 
For all climates the nettings are of iron- or steel wire. 

Q. How big should the inner pipe of a smoke- 
stack be f 

A. About an inch smaller than the cylinder- diame- 
ter, for non-compound engines ; sometimes of the 
same diameter as the cylinders. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of havijig a stack 
that is too large at the bottom f 

A. It will get clogged at the bottom, by soot. 

Q. What is the test of the correctness of stack 
diameter f 

A. If the exhaust keeps it clean all along its 
length it is all right. 

Q. How high should the stack be f 
A. The higher the better, by reason of the greater 
draft which can be given ; but this is limited by 
the tunnels and bridges, etc. along the line, to 14 or 
15 feet above the rail. Of course in such an engine 
as the Wootten, the central line of the boiler of which 
usually stands about a foot and a half higher than in 



5 8 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

other engines, this makes a proportionately short 
stack, and proportionately less draft, which must 
be made up for by other means. 

Q. What name is given to the cylindrical part 
of a locomotive boiler ? 

A. The waist or barrel. 

Q. What about the diameter of straight boiler- 
sheets as compared with that of the wagon-top 
type ? 

A. With the straight shell the waist is about two 
inches greater in diameter than with the wagon- top, 
for a given steam-space and water-room. 

Q. This being the case, which type gives the 
more circulation-room for water between the flues, 
with an equal nutnber of flues ? 

A. The straight shell type, by reason of its larger 
diameter. 

Q. Of what material are locomotive boilers 
now most often made ? 
A. Of soft steel. 

Q. What are the advantages of soft steel for 
locomotive boiler construction ? 

A. Great tensile and compressive strength, ductil- 
ity, and uniformity of structure. 

Q. How many pozmds per square inch should 
good steel boiler-plates stand f 

A. 60,000 pounds per square inch of cross-section, 
lengthwise with the fibre ; 54,000 across the fibre. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 59 

Q. To how much of this pressure is it proper 
to subject a steel boiler in use ? 

A. To about one-fifth this, so that any strains 
which may be applied to it will not inake it stretch 
or otherwise change its form or dimensions perman- 
ently. 

Q. What is the strength of wrought iron 
boilerplate as compared with mild steel ? 

A. About one- sixth less. 

Q. What is the test of a good wrought iron or 
steel boiler-plate, stay or rivet ? 

A. It should stand not less than 50,000 pounds per 
square inch of cross section without breaking, and 
should stretch about one-eighth of its length before 
breaking; and if not over an inch thick should be capable 
of being bent double when hot, without cracking. If 
under one-half inch it should be capable of being 
bent double when cold, without cracking. A hot 
rivet-shank when flattened down to half its diameter 
should stand having a hole punched through it with- 
out tearing at the hole. 

Q. Of what kind of steel should rivets be made f 

A. Of the very softest or mildest, to lessen the 
danger of their getting hard and brittle in working 
and in use. 

Q. What is the reason that metal of the highest 
tensile strength is not desirable for steel boiler- 
plates and rivets ? 

A. Because it is apt to be hard and brittle, and the 
soft ductile metal is safest for such work. 



60 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. How strong is a rivet-seam between two 
plates of equal thickness and strength, as compared 
with the plates which it fastens together ? 

A. That depends on the diameter, quality, spacing 
and arrangement of the rivets. 

Q. How should rivet-holes be made ? 

A. The best way, in steel plates, is to punch them 
smaller than desired and then to ream or drill them 
to the required size ; as this gives smoother walls 
and also cripples the fibres less, in the vicinity of the 
walls. 

Q. How is a si7igle-riveted lap-welded boiler- 
seam liable to give away ? 

A. (i) By the plate tearing away between the 
rivet and the edge of the plate ; (2) by the plate split- 
ting between the hole and the edge of the plate ; or 
(3) by the rivet itself being sheared off. 

Q To what does the first method of giving 
way point ? 

A. To the desirability of having the rivet-holes 
not too close to the edge of the sheet. 

Q. Which is it desirable to have the stronger : 
the rivets, or the plates between the rivet-holes ? 

A. The plates, by reason of their being liable to 
be strained in punching and otherwise working them. 

Q. Which is of the most importa7ice in rivet- 
ing boiler-work, strength of seam, or tightness ? 

A. Tightness ; because no matter how strong the 
seam may be originally, if it is not tight it will lose 
strength by corrosion. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 6r 

Q. Which is the stronger way, in single-riveted 
-seams : to have a large number of rivets close 
together, or a smaller number further apart ? 

A. The smaller number further apart. 

Q. Why not then go as far as possible in this 
direction ? 

A. Because then we run into the difficulty of not 
having the seams tight, and our strong seams would 
soon become weak. 

Q. What would be another way of increasing 
the strength of a boiler-seam f 

A. By drilling the rivet-holes, or by punching 
them too small and reaming them or re-drilling them. 

Q. What special advantage is there in drilling 
rivet-holes or in punching them too small and then 
enlarging them with a reamer ? 

A. In punching, the holes in each plate must be 
made separately, and there is some difficulty in making 
the distance between them exactly the same ; but in 
drilling or in reaming, the two plates may be worked 
at the same time, so as to insure absolute equality 
of spacing. Also, there is more likelihood of the 
rivets filling and fitting the holes, where they are 
drilled or reamed, than with punched holes. 

Q. As against this, what is the advantage of 
punched holes ? 

A. That they are always slightly hour- glassing, 
and for this reason, if put with their small ends 
together, the rivet may be given a slight dovetail ef- 
fect, increasing its strength against certain strains. 



62 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What sets the limit to the wide spacing of 
rivets ? 

A. The fact that the shearing strength of the rivet 
increases as the square of its diameter, while the crush- 
ing strength of the metal increases only in direct pro- 
portion to the diameter of the rivet pressing on it. 

Q. What is the largest diameter of rivet 
which can be used in three-eighths inch plates f 
A. Seven-eighths inch. 

Q. What would be the strongest seam that we 
could get with a single row of seven- eighths inch 
rivets in three-eighths inch plates ? 

A. One and three-quarter inches between rivet- 
edges, or two and five-eighths inches between rivet- 
centres. 
(The foregoing applies to iron plates and iron rivets.) 

Q. How are boiler-seams made tight, besides 
being drawn together by the contraction of the 
rivets when they cool ? 

A. By what is miscalled calking ; the metal on the 
edge being driven down against that below it, by the 
use of a blunt chisel-like tool, and a hammer ; the 
plate-edges being in the best work planed off true 
and beveled before the plates are put together. 

Q. What is likely to happen if the calking is 
done too vigorously ? 

A. The plates are liable to be forced apart, be- 
tween the rivet-line and their edges. 

Q. What is the best kind of a tool for calking 
boiler -seams f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 63 

A. One having a rounded edge, making a concave 
track on the plate- edge. 

Q. What is the objection to a calking- tool 
having a square end f 

A. It is likely to score the lower plate along the 
calking- edge, and make the plate liable to give way 
along the scored line. It is also more liable to force 
the plates apart than the round-ended tool. 

Q. How much strain, tending to open the 
lengthwise seams, is there on the barrel of a 
boiler 50 inches in diameter and 12 feet long y 
where the steam pressure is 160 pounds ? 

A. 50 x 12 x 12 x 160 = 1,152,000 pounds. 

Q. What is the use of the dome? 

A. Theoretically it is to serve as a reservoir for 
steam and to give the steam a chance to drop some of 
its entrained water. 

Q. Is it as effective in this particular as has 
been supposed f 

A. No ; a dome holds but a very few cylinderfuls 
of steam, not enough for ten seconds' supply ; and it 
usually weakens the shell by reason of the large hole 
cut in the latter. Practically it is only a convenient 
place of attachment for throttle- valve, safety-valve 
and other fittings ; and many engines are without 
them, without appearing to have lost anything by 
the omission. 

Q. Where is the dome usually placed ? 

A. In America, over the fire-box ; in England (if 
used at all) at about the center of length of the boiler, 
or in front- 



64 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What is the advantage of a stiff ening-ring 
about the base of the dome ? 

A. To keep the shell from spreading at trie dome 
where it is weakened by the dome-hole. 

Q. What is the evaporating capacity of an 
average American locomotive ? 

A. From three and one-half to seven and one-half 
tons of water per hour, for an engine weighing 40 
tons and having two cylinders 18 inches in diameter 
and 24 inches stroke. 

Q. What is the amount of coal required to 
■evaporate six to eight tons of water per hour in 
such an engine ? 

A. One ton per hour is the average, as one pound 
of average coal will make from six to eight pounds 
of steam with the boiler in average condition. 

Q. How is the engineer informed of the pres- 
sure in the boiler f 

A. By a steam-gage, the essential part of one 
kind of which is a shallow circular metal box having 
opposite sides of elastic corrugated plates which the 
pressure of the steam tends to force apart. The 
amount of their movement is indicated by a pointer 
traveling about a circular dial graduated to indicate 
the pressure in pounds per square inch above the 
atmospheric pressure. 

Q. Is there no other form of steam-gage 
than the one with disks forced apart by the 
pressure ? 

A. There is the Bourdon type, in which the pres- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



6.5 



sure of the steam is made to straighten more or less 
a curved flattened elastic metal tube. (Figure 42.) 





Fig. 42. Interior of Crosby-Bourdon Steam-gage. 

Q. What precaution is taken to prevent the 
steam taking the temper out of the disks or tubes 
•of steam-gages ? 

A. They are put on with a turn or two of pipe 
"between the boiler and the disk ; the bend of the 
pipe gradually filling with condensed steam, which 
prevents the live steam from touching the elastic disks 
or tubes. 

Q. To what should the handle of the steam- 
gage point when the connection between it and 
ihe boiler is shut off f 

A. To O or zero. 

Q. Does its pointing to O when steam is shut 
off necessarily show that it is correct ? 



66 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. No ; if it points to a figure above O, it is certainly 
out of order ; but the fact of its pointing to O when 
steam-pressure is shut off does not prove its correct- 
ness even at low pressures ; it might keep on pointing 
to O when there was pressure on it ; or it might 
point to 90 when there was 100 pounds pressure on 
it, and to 160 when there was 170 pounds. Gages 
may be " fast " at some steam-pressures, and "slow " 
at others. 

Q. Which is the most dangerous gage to have : 
one that is " fast " or one that is " slow" ? 

A. One that is " slow." 

Q. How should the gages be tested? 

A. Against a standard mercury column, and by 
competent persons. 

Q, How can the engine-runner know the height 
of the water in the boiler ? 

A. By try-cocks or by a water-column. 

Q. Where are try -cocks usually placed ? 

A. On the back end of the boiler, where they may 
be readily seen and got at. 

Q. Where are they placed as regards the water- 
level ? 

A. One of them where it is desired to keep the 
water level, one about four or five inches above this, 
and another about four or five inches below it. 

Q. What provision should there be for taking 
away the water that is discharged from the try- 
cocks ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 67 

A. There should be a drip into which each may 
discharge, and from which the water is carried 
through the cab floor by a drip-pipe. 

Q. What precaution should be taken as regards 
the proper reading of the indications of the try- 
cocks ? 

A. To let them discharge for a second or so to see 
whether the water which comes away is from below 
the water-level, or is steam that has been condensed 
in the gage-cock or its connection. 

Q. Describe a water-gage or water-column f 
A. There are two openings in the end of the boiler, 
one above the desired water-level and the other below 
it. Into each of these is secured a fitting supplied 
with a screw- down valve which shuts it off from con- 
nection with the boiler space, and having a socket in 
which there is inserted with suitable packing, a strong 
glass tube. When the valves are open, the water 
should stand in the tube at the same level as in the 
boiler with which it is in connection. There is a 
drip-cock from the lower one, by which the tube may 
be drained when the valves are closed ; and suitable 
rods guard it from accidental breakage from outside. 
This tube may be either vertical or inclined ; in either 
case the water-level should be at the same height in 
the tube as in the boiler. 

Q. In order to prevent drilling a number of 
holes in the boiler-head or shell for the various 
fittings, what is the best way f 

A. To have a steam-stand with holes for the injector 
valves, cylinder-oil cups, blower- valve, steam-gage 
cock, and brake- valves. 



68 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What is a separator? 

A. A device by which entrained water may be sepa- 
rated from the steam — usually by wings or blades 
against which the steam impinges and which deflect 
and retard the water while permitting the steam to 
pass on. 

Q. What is a safety-plug? 

A. A brass plug screwed into the crown-sheet at 
the point most likely to be burned, and having drilled 
through it a hole which is filled with an alloy that 
fuses at a temperature but slightly higher than that 
of the water and steam in the boiler at the highest 
pressure carried. Should the crown-sheet be left un- 
covered by reason of low water, and the plug be ex- 
posed to the fire, it will melt and the steam will pass 
into the fire-box, not only giving warning but 
damping the fire, thus enabling the crown- sheet to be 
saved. 

Q. Are these fusible phtgs infallible ? 

A. No ; sometimes their composition changes so 
that their melting point rises ; sometimes they get 
covered over with scale so that they do not work. 

Q. How often, then, should they be renewed? 
A. Say every two or three months. 

Q. What is the usual type of feed-pump for 
locomotives ? 

A. There is a horizontal barrel with a plain round 
pole or pmnger playing in a stuffing-box. Below 
one end of this barrel is a suction- chamber, into 
the bottom of which the suction-pipe from the tank 
enters, and which contains a central pipe surrounded 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 09 

by an annular space serving as an air-chamber. Above 
the barrel and at the same end with the suction- 
chamber is a discharge-chamber through which there 
projects a central discharge-pipe leaving around it an 
annular air-chamber. Between the suction-chamber 
and the barrel there is an upward-opening valve; 
between the discharge- chamber and the barrel there is 
another upward-opening discharge- valve or pressure- 
valve ; each of these valves being an inverted cylin- 
drical brass cup resting water-tight on a brass seat, 
and working in a cage guide. When the plunger is 
withdrawn from the barrel (if the joints are tight) 
there is formed a partial vacuum, which is filled, (if 
the plunger does not return too quickly) by water from 
the tank, which rises through the suction- valve. 
When the plunger again enters the barrel this water 
is discharged through the pressure- valve into the 
boiler or at least into the air-chamber and pipe 
between the pressure- valve and the boiler, displacing 
other water that is in the same line. There is at the 
end of the feed-pipe furthest from the pump another 
upward-opening valve called a check- valve, serving 
as a check or extra precaution lest the pressure- valve 
should not be tight, or should be injured, or held from 
its seat by a chip or other piece of foreign matter. 
The check- valve may be either inside or outside the 
boiler. The horizontal pump-barrel has attached to it 
a top chamber 2, (see figure 43) and a bottom chamber 
3. The valves 4 above and below it are practically 
the same, and play in cages 5 which may be readily 
detached from the pump-barrel and the chamber by 
running the nuts off the chamber-studs 10. The 
plunger 6 plays through the gland 7 which is inserted 
in the stuffing-box, and is held in by gland-studs 9. 



7o 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



t 



$ 



2J& 





Fig. 43. Pump Work. 



/. Pump-barrel. 
j. Bottom-chamber . 
cage. 6. Plunger, 
bottom Ring. 9. 



2. Top-chamber. 

4. Valve. 5. Valve- 

7. Gland. 8. Gland- 

Gland-studs. 10. 




Chamber-studs. 11. Check-pipe. 12. 

Check-pipe Coupling-nut. ij. Feed-pipe. 

14. Feed-pipe Coupling-nut. 15. Pet-cock. 16. Pet-cock Lever in 

Cab. 1 j. Pet-cock Lever Fulcrum. 18. Pet-cock Lever-rod. 79. 

Pet-cock Lever-rod Guide. 20. Pet-cock Crank. 21. Pet-cock 

Crank-hanger. 22. Pet-cock Crank-rod. 23. Pet-cock Crank-jaw. 

24. Pet-cock Lever-jaw. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 71 

Q. Where are the pumps usually placed and 
driven ? 

A. On the frames back of trie cylinders, and driven 
direct from the crosshead ; although sometimes 
they are inside the frames and are driven by a small 
eccentric on one of the axles ; and sometimes again, 
although very rarely, they are outside the wheels, and 
worked by a connecting-rod from a short crank at- 
tached to the crank-pin. 

Q. What name is given to pumps driven by the 
crosshead ? 

A. Full-stroke pumps. 

Q. What name is given to those which are 
worked by eccentrics from the driving-axles, or 
by cranks from the crank-pin f 

A. Short- stroke pumps. 

Q. Is the suction air-chamber always ttsed ? 

A. No ; but it is desirable to relieve the suction- 
valve from shock. 

Q. How can the pump be dismounted for ex- 
amination of the valves f 

A. The pump-barrel and the air-chamber are 
bolted together; breaking this joint and removing 
the air-chamber exposes the pressure- valve and gage. 
The suction air-chamber (or suction- valve chamber 
where there is no suction-chamber) may be similarly 
taken down from the barrel. An outside check- valve 
may be taken out by breaking the bolt and nut joint 
which holds up its valve-seat. 



7 2 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. What is the peculiarity of the locomotive 
feed-pump f 

A. Its plunger is working at all times, whether 
water is needed in the boiler or not ; making it 
necessary to have some means of controlling the 
supply. 





Fig. 44. Feed-water Work. 



/. Shaft. 2. Shaft-quadrant, j. Shaft-handle. 4. Shaft-hanger. 
5. Shaft-rod. 6. Cock-shaft. 7. Cock-shaft Bearing. 8. Cock-shaft 
Hanger, g. Cock. 10. Pipe-clamp. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



73 



Q. As the pump runs all the time that the en- 
gine is working, but is 7tot always feeding, how 
can it be told whether or not it is forcing water f 

A. By the pet-cock on either the upper air-cylinder 
or the feed-pipe. The force of the stream which 
emerges from this when opened, enables the engineer 
to judge as to the amount of feed-water that is passing. 

Q. How is the supply of feed-water supplied 
by the pump regulated? 

A. By a feed-cock in the suction-pipe, regulating 
the amount that can pass to the pump (see figures 
44 and 45) ; also by the valve opening from the tank 
to the tender-hose. 




Fig. 45. Feed-cock. 

9. Feed-cock Body. 10. Feed-cock Plug and Nut. 11. Hose-coup- 
ling Nut. 12. Hose-swivel, ij. Feed-pipe. 

Q. What would be the result of over -feeding 
the boiler ? 

A. The steam-space would be filled and this 
water would get into the steam-pipes and be likely 
to wreck the cylinders. 



74 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q t What would be the result of under -feeding 
the boiler ? 

A. The crown- sheet and npper flues would be left 
uncovered with water and liable to be overheated, or 
as it is called, burned. 

Q. Should the feed-cock plug extend through 
its case, or not ? 

A. To prevent leakage it is better that it should 
not. 

Q. What is the use of a dip-pipe in the upper 
air-chamber f 

A. To prevent the chamber rilling up with water, 
where the water is taken from the top. 

Q. At what part of the boiler should the feed- 
pump discharge ? 

A. In the coolest part ; say about one and one-half 
to two feet back of the front flue- sheet. 

Q. How is the pump prevented from freezing 
and bursting, in case the engine is lying by with- 
out steam on ? 

A. By a frost- cock or bleeder on the lower air- 
chamber, to permit the water to be let out. A simi- 
lar contrivance is usually on the feed-pipe also. 

Q. How is the water in the pump, suction-pipe 
and tank prevented from freezing without being 
bled out ? 

A. By heater-pipes communicating with the steam 
in the boiler or with injectors, and discharging into 
the suction-pipe. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



75 



Q. What keeps the suction-hose from flatten- 
ing either tinder external pressure or by reason 
of short bends ? 

A. It is often lined with a stout wire spiral. 

Q. What enables the pump to be removed for 
inspection or repair, while steam is on the boiler, 
or the boiler is ftdl of water ? 

A. There is between it and the boiler a valve 
which as it opens only in the direction of flow of the 
water from the pump to the boiler permits the 
water to pass only in that direction. Figure 46 
shows a pump-check composed of a check-body 1 
and flange 2, held together by check-flange studs 3. 




Fig. 46. Pump-check. 

/. Check-body. 2. Check-flange. 3. Check-flange Studs. 4. Valve. 
5. Valve-seat. 6. Valve-cage. 7. Casing. S. Check-pipe Coupling- 
nut. 



76 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



The valve 4 contained in the valve-cage 6 seats itself 
on the valve-seat 5 ; the whole being surrounded by 
a casing 7 and attached by a check-pipe coupling- 
nut 8. 

Q. Where is it tisual for sitch a check-valve to 
be placed ? 

A. Outside the boiler, in the feed-pipe. 

Q. What is the objection to an outside check- 
valve ? 

A. It is liable to be knocked off in a collision or 
other accident, and in this case there will be an 
escape of hot water, followed by steam, which is 
liable to injure the engineer and fireman or other per- 
sons, and also tends to cripple the boiler. 

Q. Where then should the check-valve be placed? 
A. Just inside the shell, where the feed-pipe dis- 
charges into it. 




Fig. 47. Lengthwise Vertical Section, "Little Giant" Injector. 

Q. Where is the injector tisually placed ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 77 

A. On the side of the boiler, inside the cab, where 
it may be readily got at by the engineman. 

Q. Shozdd tJiere be a check-valve between the 
injector and the boiler f 
A. By all means. 

Q. What may be said about frequency of use 
of the injector ? 

A. It is well to nse it often in order to keep it in 
good order. 

Q. How may this be arranged where there are 
two injectors ? 

A. One of them may be used when running and 
the other when standing still ; say, in the latter 
case the one on the left-hand side. 

Q. Where should an injector get its steam 
supply ? 

A. Over that part of the boiler or dome which 
will give the driest steam. 

Q. How may loose mud and other loose dirt be 
removed from a locomotive boiler ? 

A. Through large blow-off cocks placed near the 
bottom of the fire-box, and which may be opened 
when steam is on, thereby letting much of such 
loose material be blown out. 

Q. How is the remainder of the mud and dirt 
■removed f 

A. By hand-holes or mud plugs in the fire-box 
corners near the bottom ; sometimes also by a hand- 
hole at the bottom of the front tube-sheet. By this 



78 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

the mud may be loosened and much of it removed , 
and a hose used to clean out the loose material. 

Q. When the check-valve is near the front of 
the boiler, as is ttsitally the case, what may be 
said about the blow-off cocks ? 

A. There should be one right under the check- 
valve, by which to blow off the material that has 
dropped under it. 

Q. What is to prevent the boiler blowing up in 
case steam is made faster than it is used ? 

A. Up to a certain point, the evaporation of a 
greater weight of water than is passed out as 
steam, causes increase of pressure ; and this would 
continue until all the water was evaporated, or until 
the pressure got too great for the boiler to stand. In 
order to prevent the boiler bursting or exploding, 
there is a large valve opening from the steam- space 
and held down by a spring, the tension of which is 
adjustable so that the valve will lift when the pres- 
sure upon it from below reaches a certain point, which 
is very much below the safe working-pressure of the 
boiler. When the steam-pressure reaches the point 
at which the valve is set to blow, there is discharge 
of steam ; and if the valve has discharging capacity 
enough to let through all the steam that the boiler 
can make, there will be no explosion. And in 
order to diminish the chances of explosion there 
are often two of these valves side by side, and set to 
blow at the same or about the same pressure. (See 
figure 5.) 

Q. What is to prevent the engineer screwing 
down the safety-valve so as to give more steam- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 79 

pressure than he would otherwise have, or what 
is to prevent some malicious person rendering 
the boiler liable to exploding by doing the same 
thing unknown to the engine-runner f 

A. One of the valves is usually arranged so that 
the spring which holds it down cannot be readily 
got at to change the pressure at which the valve will 
blow. 

Q. What precaution should be taken as to 
that safety-valve which is held down by a lever 
and not locked f 

A. It should be raised daily to ensure that the 
disk is not corroded on the seat, or that it is not 
otherwise inefficient. 

Q. How may the pressure of steam in the 
boiler be relieved if necessary, before the safety- 
valve blows f 

A. By lifting the safety-valve by the relief-lever. 

Q. What is the advantage of the ordinary 
safety-valve with long lever ? 

A. That without leaving the cab it may be readily 
adjusted, to blow at any desired pressure. 

Q. What are the advantages of the pop safety- 
valve ? 

A. That it gives larger discharging-area than the 
ordinary valve. 

Q. How is the Crosby pop safety-valve con- 
structed ? 

A. The valve rests on two flat ring-shaped seats 



So 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



lying in the same plane and forming part of the shell, 
which is in two parts, an inner and an outer cylin- 
drical chamber, connected by hollow horizontal 
radial arms between which the steam passes, acting 
on that part of the valve which shows above and 
between the two valve-seats. (See figure 48.) 





Fig. 48. Crosby Locomotive 
Pop Safe ty- valve. 



Fig. 49. Meady Muffled Loco 
motive Pop Safety-valve. 



Q. How is the noise of steam which escapes 
from the safety-valve lessened, to prevent frighten- 
ing horses when trains are standing at stations, 
and from being a general ntiisance ? 

A. By a muffler, consisting of a coil of wire 
through the interstices of which the steam escapes, 
making much less noise than where it has to pour 



L0C0M0T1VB CATECHISM. 8i 

through a more contracted area. Other mufflers are 
made of boxes full of glass beads or of similar sub- 
stances offering an immense amount of friction with 
a large discharging- area. Some have a central verti- 
cal pipe with a large number of I^-shaped tubular 
branches pointing upwards. In all, the principle is 
the same : to give the steam a very large area of 
escape divided up into as many jets or sheets as 
possible. (Figure 49.) 

Q. What provision is necessary where the water 
is very impure ? 

A. A mud-drum — a wrought iron cylinder below 
the boiler, usually at the front end, and having a 
blow-off cock and a removable cast-iron bottom cover. 
There being in this drum but little water- circulation, 
most of the mud and scale collects there, instead of 
being burned on the sheets of the main shell. 

Q. How is radiation from the boiler lessened ? 

A. By lagging the boiler and dome with wood 
strips and then covering these with a Russia-iron 
jacket ; sometimes by covering with wool felt, then 
with wood strips and Russia iron ; sometimes by 
asbestos cloth or some plastic material and Russia 
iron. 

Q. How may hard mud and scale be removed f 

A. Either through oval hand-holes in the corners 
of the fire-box, near the bottom, and closed with 
two plates, one inside and the other outside, con- 
nected and fastened with a bolt, or through holes in 
which are screwed mud-plugs. After as much as 
possible has been scraped out through these holes, a 
hose may be inserted and a strong stream of water 




82 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

used to slush out other material not within reach of 
scrapers. 

Q. How does the steam-whistle act ? 

A. There is an inverted cylinder or cup of thin 
metal, with a sharp circular edge, 
against which an annular sheet of steam 
is discharged from an annular orifice ; 
the force of the escaping steam causes 
the bell or cup to vibrate and give out a 
musical tone the pitch of which depends 
on the diameter and the depth of the 
cup. (Figure 50.) 

Q. How is the steam admitted to 
„. ^ the steam-chest, or cut off therefrom ? 
Chime Whistle, a. By the throttle- valve, usually 
placed at the end of the throttle-pipe or vertical 
extension of the dry-pipe, in the dome, where there 
is a dome ; although sometimes placed in the front 
end of the horizontal part of the dry-pipe, particu- 
larly where there is no dome. 

Q. How are throttle-valves at present usually 
made ? 

A. When they are in the dome, of double poppet- 
valves, consisting of two disks on a stem, and cover- 
ing corresponding openings in the case with which 
the pipe is ended. Moving the valves and the stem 
lengthwise of the latter, either closes the disks 
against the circular openings or removes them from 
them, leaving annular openings through which the 
steam flows. 



locomotive: catechism. 83 

Q. When they are in the smoke-box what is 
their character f 

A. Plain slides. 

Q. Why is the double-poppet form of throttle- 
valve chosen for the dome ? 

A. Because the pressure of trie steam on one disk 
balances that on the other, instead of there being as 
where slide-valves are used, an unbalanced pressure 
in one direction, tending to make it difficult either to 
open the valve or to close it. 

Q. Are the disks of the same size, and does 
the pressure on one, exactly balance that on the 
other f 

A. No ; each disk must be larger than the 
opening which it closes, and one of them must be 
small enough to pass through the opening which the 
other covers. This being the case the upper disk is 
the larger and the pressure is not quite balanced, 
there being a tendency to keep the valve closed, 
which is of advantage, after steam has been shut off. 

Q. How is this valve, which is in the steam 
space, opened and closed ? 

A. By the throttle-lever, which is connected by 
the throttle-stem with the lower arm of a bell- crank, 
the upper arm of which is connected by a rod with 
the valve-stem. The throttle-stem works through a 
stuffing-box in the back end of the boiler. It is 
enabled to work in a straight line through the stuffing- 
box by a small vibrating link. (See plate 21.) 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. How is the 
desired position ? 

A. Usually by a latch gearing 
into a sector and operated by a 
trigger connected to the latch by 
a rod. 

Q. What is the objection to 
the ordinary type of throttle- 
lever having two links back 
of the fulcrum, and a quad- 
rant and clamp ? 

A. It requires two hands, this 
being inconvenient and at times 
objectionable. 

Q. What would be better 
than the clamping-rig i 

A. A notched sector or quad- 
rant such as is used with the 
reverse-lever, except that the 
notches are of saw-tooth style so 
as to permit the throttle to be 

ji 



throttle-lever held in any 



IZB 




<© ^— 



Fig. 51. Throttle Work. 



/. Lever. 2. Quadrant. 3. Latch. 
6. Jaw. 7. Link. 8. Link-stud. 9. 
spring. 



4. Latch-link. 5. Rod. 
Handle. 10. Handle- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 85 

very quickly closed and prevent it from being jarred 
open. (See figure 51.) 

Q. What is the disadvantage of such a 
throttle ? 

A. If the teeth are coarse enough to be strong, 
the intervals between them may be too great to 
permit as fine adjustment as is desirable. 

Q. Hozv is the steam carried from the dome 
{where there is one) to the cylinders ? 

A. It passes through a vertical pipe called the 
throttle-pipe, which reaches up into the dome and 
draws the steam from where it is driest. In this its 
passage is controlled by the throttle-valve ; then 
it goes into a horizontal pipe called a dry-pipe y 
extending from the throttle-pipe to the front tube- 
plate, at which point, in the smoke-box, it divides ; 
two curved pipes (called steam-pipes,) or a forked 
pipe (called a T-pipe) taking it to the cylinders. 
(See Plate 2.) 

Q. Of what material are throttle-pipes made f 

A. Of cast-iron. 

Q. Why not make the throttle-valve of brass ? 

A. Because the pipe being of cast-iron the differ- 
ence of expansion in the two metals would make a 
valve leak under high-pressure steam if it was tight 
under low, or vice versa. 

O. What is the disadvantage of having too 
small a throttle-pipe ? 

A. The steam is wire-drawn. 



36 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of having too 
large a throttle-pipe ? 

A. There is between the throttle- valve and the 
cylinders too much steam, which requires to be 
worked off before the engine will stop. 

Q. From what point in the steam-space is the 
steam taken to supply the cylinders ? 

A. Where there is a dome, it is taken from that, 
by what is known as the dry-pipe, and which extends 
along through the steam-space in the shell of the 
boiler, to the front tube-plate, through which it 
passes ; being divided at its front end, inside the 
smoke-box, into two curved steam-pipes leading to 
the steam- chests. 

Q. Why is the steam drawn from the dome f 

A. Because it is the highest point and there is less 
liability of drawing entrained water over with the 
steam ; also (in American locomotives) because it is 
usually quite far back, near the fire-box, where 
the steam is hottest ; and further, because at that 
point the throttle may be more readily placed and 
manipulated. 

0. What special trouble is there with the 
branches of the T-pipe ? 

A. They are very difficult to keep tight, by 
reason of their being subjected to great and frequent 
changes of temperature and thus being expanded and 
contracted. Also, the lack of rigidity of American 
engines makes it difficult to keep them tight, inde- 
pendently of the question of expansion and con- 
traction. 



.LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 87 

Q. How are flexibility and expansibility pro- 
video 7 for in the steam-pipes ? 

A. By connecting them with ball joints — their 
ends being flanged and also one turned spherically 
convex and the other spherically concave with the 
same radius, so that one may play upon the other 
without marring the joint. 

Q. In iv hat direction does this ball-joint 
arrangement provide flexibility f 
A. Laterally. 

Q. How is movement in ait up-a7id-down direc- 
tion provided for ? 

A. By having a false end to one of the pipes, this 
false end having one side spherically convex and the 
other plane, so that it may slide up and down on the 
end of the pipe ; or by having such a sliding device 
at one end of the pipe and a ball-joint at the other. 

Q. What causes foaming in the boiler? 
A. Oil, alkali, or other matter, causing the water 
to froth, like suds. 

Q. What is a sign of foaming ? 

A. Water showing at the stack, particularly if 
coupled with the valves pulling the lever or with 
squeaking valves or pistons. 

Q. If water should show at the stack what 
should be done ? 

A. The throttle should be closed and the water- 
level allowed to settle, to permit of finding out 
whether the show of water was due to overpumping 
or to foaming. 



88 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What would be the test in this case ? 

A. Sinking of the water to the lowest gage after 
the throttle was closed would be a sign of foaming. 

Q. What should be done to stop foaming ? 

A. The feed should be put on, and the surface 
blow started. 

Q. What should be done in case of foaming, 
not as a matter of prevention of the evil but as a 
meastire of safety to the engine ? 

A. The cylinder-cocks should be opened, to pre- 
vent the heads being knocked out by the excess of 
water. 

Q. How may oil in the tank be got rid of ? 

A. By overflowing it for considerable time,, 
coupled with the use of the heaters. 

Q. What is priming in a boiler f 

A. Lifting of water in a body. 

Q. What causes priming ? 

A. Too little libera ting-surface at the top of the 
water. 

Q. Where is the feed usually introduced, and 
why ? 

A. Pretty well forward, so that the cold entering 
feed- water will not strike the hot part of the boiler. 

Q. What would be the result of introducing 
the feed-water right on the fire-box sheets ? 

A. To crack them by sudden cooling and contrac- 
tion. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 89 

O. What is usually the best height to carry 
water in the boiler ? 

A. At such a height that the top try-cock will 
show both water and steam. 

Q. Why not carry water so that it will show 
solid at the top try -cock ? 

A. Because in such case there would be no know- 
ing whether there was 1-4 inch or 3 inches of water 
above the cock. 

Q. How should water be carried in approach- 
ing a down grade f 

A. There should be enough water to keep the 
crown- sheet covered on the grade. 

Q. If you should strike a down grade and 
show both steam and water in the lower gage r 
what should be done ? 

A. I should put on the feed, and see that the fire- 
man kept the fire bright. 

Q. What would be the result of putting on the 
feed with low water and not keeping the fire 
bright f 

A. The flues would be apt to be made to leak. 

Q. Does it make much difference what kind of 
water locomotive boilers get ? 

A. It makes a great deal. If it is acid it tends to 
corrode the boiler on the inside ; if it has much 
mineral matter in solution this is dropped from it 
when evaporation takes place, and becomes baked on 
the shell and tubes as a stony scale ; if there is 
undissolved vegetable or mineral matter, this is 



<)o LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

deposited on the bottom as slush and sometimes is 
baked on also. 

Q. How can acid get in the water ? 

A. The water from streams in the Pennsylvania 
coal-mining regions is impregnated with sulphuric 
acid ; and the same or similar causes produce similar 
results elsewhere. 

Q. Would alkaline water be an advantage ? 

A. No, not usually, because the dissolved alkali 
would be deposited on the shell when the water 
was evaporated. There are, however, cases where 
hy using an acid water from one station and an 
alkaline from another, one will counteract the other ; 
hut it is not well to trust to any such luck. 

Q. What has been the experience with feed- 
heaters f 

A. That their cost has been greater than the sav- 
ing which they effected ; so that their use has been 
abandoned. 

Q. Where there are three cylinders, as for 
instance in a compound locomotive where there is 
one cylinder between the frames and two outside, 
as shown in figttre §2, how are the cranks 
arranged ? 

A. 120°, that is, one-third of a circle, apart. 

Q. Where are the cylinders of a two-cyli7ider 
A merican locomotive placed ? 

A. On the outside of the frames. 

Q. Where are the cylinders of most two-cylin- 
der European locomotives placed ? 

A. Inside, between the frames. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



9i 



Q. What are the advantages of the America7t 
arrangement of the cylinders f 

A. There is no necessity for cranking the axle, and 
the steam chests are more readily got at. 




IFig. 52. Arrangement of Cylinders, Webb Compound Iyocomotive. 

Q. What are the advantages of inside-cylinder 
engines f 

A. They run more steadily, where the wheel-base 
is- short, by reason of the outside cylinders having 
greater leverage to twist the entire machine from 



92 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



side to side ; and there is less loss of heat from the 
cylinder, by radiation, than where they are exposed 
outside the frames; the engine takes up less room 




Fig. 53- Cylinder, Pennsylvania Railroad Engine, Class " O. ' ,r 
Length-wise Vertical Section. 

laterally, hence narrower tunnels and bridges suffice 
for a given power of engine. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM 




Figs. 54 and 55. 

Cylinder and Half- 
saddle Cross Section. 
Pennsylvania 
Railroad Engine, 
Class "O." 



94 * LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What are the disadvantages of the inside- 
cylinder type ? 

A. The danger from broken crank-axles ; the 
difficulty of getting at the cylinders for inspection, 
adjustment and repair, and the inability to use cyl- 
inders of very great diameter. 

Q. Where there are two cylinders in a com- 
pound locomotive, where are they generally 
arranged f 

A. If it is an outside-cylinder engine, the high- 
pressure will come on one side and the low-pressure 
on the, other. If it is an inside- cylinder engine, the 
high-pressure may be beside the low, or they may be 
u tandem " or in line ; although the latter is rare, 
and calls for too great length of engine. 

Q. Where there is a three-cylinder compound 
engine, how are the cylinders arranged f 

A. There may be one high-pressure cylinder 
between the frames, exhausting into two low-pres- 
sure cylinders outside. 

Q. In the Vauclain compound locomotive what 
is the arrangement of the cylinders ? 

A. Two on each side, one above the other ; where 
the conditions will permit the high-pressure cylinder 
being put on top as is shown in figure 56, but where 
the wheels are low, as with consolidation engines, the 
low-pressure cylinder is above as shown in figure 57. 

Q. What is the objection to a four-cylinder 
engine having two outside cylinders, side by side r 
each side of the frame f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



95 



A. Complication of working parts, and greater 
width for the same cylinder- capacity, than where 
there is only one cylinder on each side. 





Fig. 56. Cylinders, Valve Chest and Half-saddle, Vauclain Eight- 
wheeled Compound. 

Q. Is it possible to balance the weight of the 
connecting-rod so that a two-cylinder engine 
shall be balanced both vertically and horizontally f 

A. No. 

Q. Suppose that an ordinary two-cylinder 
engine has its connecting-rod balanced vertically, 
what will be the effect ? 

A. It will run with a series of horizontal jerks. 



9 6 



LOCOMOTIVE CATKCHISM. 



Q. Suppose that it is balanced horizontally, 
what will be the effect f 

A. That which is ordinarily observed ; there will 




Pig- 57- 



Cylinders, Valve Chest and Half-saddle, Vauclain Con- 
solidation Compound. 



be a series of vertical movements corresponding to 
the npward and downward motion of the cranks, 
and the engine will sway from side to side, and will 
give vertical blows upon the rails. 

Q. How may this be done away with ? 

A. By having two cylinders upon a side, both 
outside of the frames, and each having its own con- 
necting-rod, so that when one rod goes up the other 
goes down, every pound that goes up at a given 
velocity on one side being balanced by another 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



9? 



pound at the same velocity in the other direction, 
npon that side. 



^ 




f ,. 8 -Ml 



Fig. 58. 
/. Cylinder. 



Cylinder, Steam-chest and Attachments. 



Front Head. 3. Back Head. 4. Front Cover. 
5. Back Cover. 6. Cylinder-gland, R and L. 7. Cylinder-gland, 
Bottom-ring. 8. Wood Lagging, g. Casing. 10. Steam-chest. 
11. Steam-chest Cap. 12. Steam-chest Gland. 13. Steam-chest 
Gland, Bottom-ring. 14. Steam-chest Cover. 15. Steam-chest 
■Casing. 16. Steam-chest Valve. 17. Steam-chest Valve-yoke 
18. Steam-chest Joint, ig. Steam-chest Oil-pipe Stem. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of steeply-in- 
clined outside cylinders ? 

A. They cause a rolling motion. 

Q. How are the steam-cylinders made ? 



9 8 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. Their convex walls are cast with the bottom of 
the steam- chest in one piece with them, and the 
passages from the steam- chest to the count erbores 
cored out ; the front and the back heads are fastened 
on by bolts or studs, with steam-tight joints between 
the heads and the flanges of the cylinder-ends. The 
steam-chest is sometimes in one piece with the cylin- 
der, sometimes bolted to it. 

Q. To zv hat are the cylinders fastened ? 

A. To bed-plates or bed-castings placed between 
them ; these sometimes forming two separate pieces 
which are bolted together in the centre of the engine, 
sometimes being in one piece, with the cylinders 
bolted to them, and sometimes formed in one with 
the cylinder and bolted together on the centre-line of 
the engine. 

Q. To what are the bed-castings fastened be- 
sides to the cylinders f 
A. To the smoke-box. 

Q. To what are the cylinde7 r s fastened besides 
to tJie bed-castings f 
A. To the frames. 

Q. Which arrangement of cylinder is the most 
popular in America f 

A. The cylinder and half -saddle cast in one. (See 
figure 59.) 

Q. In this type, what is the difference between 
the cylinders for the two sides of the engine ? 

A. They are practically alike, in present practice, 
to save expense in making patterns and in keeping 
spare parts at various shops. 

■Oh J 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



99 



Q. What is the objection to bolts for fastening 
on the cylinder-heads f 

A. Breakage of trie bolt calls for removal of the 
entire cylinder-lagging in order to replace that bolt ; 
whereas a stnd may be drilled out in place without 
unlagging. 




Fig. 59. Cylinder and Half-saddle. 

Q. Why is the cylinder counterbored at each 
end? 

A. To prevent the piston from wearing a shoulder 
at the end of its stroke. 

Q. What would be the disadvantage of stick a 
shoulder f 

A. If the position of the piston with reference to 
the cylinder should be changed by any adjustment, 
there would be danger of breakage when the edge of 
the piston-head struck the shoulder at either end. 

Q. How is the joint between the steam-chest 
case and the cylinder, between it and its cover, 
made steam-tight ? 

A. One way is by an ordinary gasket ; but a pre- 



LofC. 



100 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



ferable one is by a 1-4 inch soft copper rod of proper 
outline, the ends being scarfed and hard-soldered. 




I 



^J 



[Fig. 60. Cylinder-cock Work. 



7. Upper-arm. 2. Lower-arm. 3. Shaft. 4. Shaft-bearing. 5. 
Cock-strips. 6. Lever in Cab. 7. Lever-fulcrum. 8. Coupling- 
rod faws. 

This cannot be blown out as is apt to be the case 
with ordinary gasket-stuff, and when the joint is 
broken the wire may be used again and again. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. id 

Q. How is the joint between the cylinder and 

its heads made steam-tight ? 

A. By sheet gasket or by a soft copper wire as 
mentioned in connection with the steam-chest. 

Q. How is the cylinder-casing held on ? 

A. It is best held out from the cylinder- walls by 
the flanges on the ends of the cylinder and held on 
these by the front and back covers being slipped 
over it. 

Q. How is the danger of knocking out a cylin- 
der-head by reason of water carried over from 
the boiler or left by condensation, lessened f 




Fig. 6l. Combination Cylinder-cock and By-pass Valve, Vauclain 
Compound Locomotive. 

A. By cocks at each end of the cylinder, controlled 
from the cab, and by which the cylinders may be 
bled from time to time if the engines work water or 
after starting. (See figures 60 and 61.) 



io2 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

0. What precaution is taken to lessen the 
loss of heat and lowering of pressure due to 

internal condensation by reason of radiation from 
the steam-chest and cylinder walls ? 

A. They are lagged with a non-conducting sub- 
stance, as wooden strips, and usually have an air- 
jacket or double wall ; the cylinder-heads are in the 
same way double. Sometimes instead of wooden 
strips, hair felt is used as a non-conductor. 

Q. What is the piston ? 

A. A reciprocating member formed of a piston- 
head and a piston-rod, playing together, lengthwise 
of the cylinder, freely but practically steam-tight. 

O. How is the piston-head made ? 

A. There are dozens of designs. One of the most 
common ways is to have a spider consisting of a 
ring, hub, and radial arms, and a follower-plate or 
follower which is bolted to the spider by the follower- 
bolts. This built-up head works slightly loose in 
the cylinder, but has a pair of rings which are set 
out by bolts from the inside of the spider so that they 
press with any desired degree of force against the 
cylinder- walls ; the rings being cat across so as to 
permit being opened out by the packing-bolts. The 
ioint or cut in one ring is placed on the opposite side 
of the piston-head from that in the other ring, so as 
not to make a continuous cut through which 
steam might pass. Figure 62 shows a piston- 
head made in one solid piece with two cast-iron 
spring rings 8, 8, let into grooves in its periphery. 
Figure 63 shows a head made of a spider 1 
or head proper, and a follower 2, fastened thereto 



locomotive: catechism. 



103 




/. Piston-head. 2. Piston- 
follower. 3. Piston-follower 
Bolts. 4. Piston-follower 
Bolt-nuts. 5. Piston-rod. 
6. Piston-rod Key. 7. Piston- 
rod Nut. 8. Piston-spring 



Rings {Cast-iron). 9. Piston 
T-ring ( Cast-iron ) . 10. 
Brass and .Composition 
Piston-rings. ir. Piston- 
spring. 12. Piston-spring 
Studs and Nuts. 



Figs. 62, 63 and 64. Pistons and Packing Rings. 



104 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

by follower-bolts 3 and follower-bolt nuts 4 ; the 
rings 10 in this case being of brass and composition 
held out by piston-springs n, the force of which 
may be varied by the spring- studs and nuts 12. In 
figure 64 there is also a spider or head 1, a 
follower 2 and bolts and nuts 4, but there is a cast- 
iron T-ring 9, and cast-iron spring-rings. These 
three show the principal kinds of packing used. In 
figure 62, the piston is fastened on with a nut 7;, 
in figures 63 and 64, by a key. 

Q. Of what material are these rings made ? 

A. They may be of cast-iron, or of brass or gun- 
metal, or of either of these two with babbitt-metal 
run in to lessen friction. 

Q. What material is used for follower-boll 
nuts ? 

A. Brass, to prevent the bolts being rusted tight 
in them, thus preventing adjustment. 

Q. Is there any other way of packing pistons 
besides by setting out the packing-rings by bolts 
and nuts ? 

A. Yes, they may be steam-packed ; that is the 
rings may be set out by the pressure of the steam 
in the cylinder, so that the greater the steam- pressure 
in the cylinder, tending to pass the piston, the greater 
the pressure by which the piston-rings are pressed 
against the cylinder-walls to prevent leakage past 
the head. Also, they are often held out solely by 
their own elasticity ; being made a trifle larger in 
diameter than the cylinder-bore and having cut out 
of their periphery a piece large enough to enable 
them to be sprung in. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



105 



Q. What section is given to such spring 
packings ? 

A. Their inner circle is eccentric with the outer > 
so that they are thicker at one side than at the other ; 
the cut being made at the thin side, so as to give the 
greatest possible spring to them, to tend to keep 
them open and against the cylinder- walls. 

Q. Where a piston has split spring packing, on 
which side is the cut in the ring put ? 

A. On the bottom. 

Q. What is the Dunbar piston-packing ? 

A. There are two classes of rings ; one set of 
L-section and the other of plain rectangular section ; 
each of these extends all the way around, but they 
break joints ; each ring being in six circumferential 
sections. 




Fig. 65. Half of Vauclain Two-part Cast-iron Pistou-hcad. 

Q. What method is there of making pistons 



106 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

which will permit of having them hollow and yet 
do away with the uncertainty of coring? 

A. By casting them of two sections and riveting 
them together ; the sections being of the character 
shown in figure 65. 

Q. How is the piston-rod fastened to the cross- 
head ? 

A. Usually it is tapered to fit a tapering hole in 
the crosshead, and is keyed in place. 

0. What relieves the stuffing-box of the strain 
that would be put on it by the tendency of the con- 
necting-rod to bend t lie piston-rod in a vertical 
plane ? 

A. The crosshead, which works in guides which 
are absolutely parallel with the cylinder- axis, thus 
protecting the rod, the stuffing-box, and the cylinder 
and piston from undue wear. ^See figures 66 to 70, 
inclusive.) 

Q. How is tJie piston-rod fastened to the piston- 
heaa 

It may be passed clear through and riveted over 
or passed through and supplied with a nut on the 
front end, or tapered and keyed ; or tapered and 
riveted, or tapered, riveted and keyed. ( See figures 
62, 63 and 64. J 

O. Where the piston-rod passes through the 
back head, how is the steam prevented from pass- 
ing out of the cylinder ? 

A. The rod passes through a stuffing-box, the 
annular space between it and the box being filled 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 107 

-with an elastic material like hemp, Indiarubber and 
cotton, etc ; this material being pressed against the 
walls of the stuffing-box and the outside of the rod 
by the stuffing-box cover having a tube which partly 
projects inside the box and by which, when the cover 
or gland is screwed down more or less tightly, the 
packing is pressed more or less strongly against the 
box and the rod. There are also split packing- rings 
of antifriction metal which are pressed against the 
rod and the box by springs. 

Q. What are the essential parts of a cross- 
head ? 

A. A socket for the reception of the piston-rod 
end ; a journal on which the connecting-rod may 
turn, and slides which may play between the guides. 

Q. Which is it best to have cut by wear ; the 
slides, {gibs) or the guides ? 

A. The slides or gibs. 

Q. What is the objection to having the wrist- 
pin cast in one piece with the cross head f 

A. It is difficult to true up. 

Q. Why are cross head pins made compara- 
tively short and thick f 

A. By reason of the lateral play between the driv- 
ing-wheel hubs and their boxes making a twisting 
stress on the pin, on curves. 

Q. How is the wrist-pin attached to the cross- 
head ? 

A. It is usually cast solid with it. 



ioS 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. What class of cross head may be used for 
compound engines having two cylinders on a side ? 

A. As shown in figure 66, having two sockets, 
one for each piston-rod ; the entire block being of 




Fig. 66. Crosshead, Vauclain Compound Locomotive. 

cast steel in one piece and having its wearing- surfaces 
covered with block tin 1-16 inch thick. 

Q. What forms are given to guides ? 

A. Their form is legion. There may be only one 
guide-bar, above the piston-rod and crosshead, and 
which is embraced by the latter, or there may be 
two, one above and the other below, the crosshead 
having bearing surfaces on both, but not embracing 
either, or two above the crosshead, or two pairs, one 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM 



109 



_E2i 



1 



= 1 



ts-r 






Fig. 67, 68. Guide-bearer, Guides aud Crossheads. 

/. Guide-bearer. 2. Guide-dearer Knee. j. Top Guide-bar. 
4. Bottom Guide-bar. 5. Guide-fillings. 6. Gross/wad. 7. Cross- 
head Gibs. 9. Crosshead Plate. 10. Crosshead Pin. 11. Cross- 
head Key. 



no LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

pair above and one pair below the crosshead. Figure 
67, page 109, shows an arrangement in which the 
crosshead has four guide-bars, two upper and 
two lower, the wrist-pin centre being about in line 
with the lower ones, as shown in the cross section. 
Figure 68, page 109, shows two guides, one upper 
and one lower, the wrist-pin coming about half 
way between them, as shown more clearly in the cross 
section. In figure 69, page in, there is but one 
guide-bar and that is surrounded by plates bolted to 
the crosshead proper. In figure 70, of page 112, 
there are two guides, having between them what is 
called the crosshead filling-piece which is bolted 
between the two cheeks of the crosshead. 

Q. What name is often given to the distance- 
piece between the guides f 

A. Guide filling-pieces. 

Q. What class of guides is used where one of 
the driving-wheels is opposite to the guide-bars, as 
with mogul and consolidation engines ? 

A. There are two bars above the crosshead and 
none below or on the sides. 

Q. What holds the guide-bars in place against 
the great vertical strains to which they are 
subjected ? 

A. They are bolted at the front end to the back 
cylinder-head and at the back end to the guide-yoke 
attached to the frame of the engine, and usually, also, 
to the boiler. 

Q. What other name is often given to the 
guide-yoke f 

A. The guide-bearer. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 






or 



Figs. 69 and 



o. 



Guide-bearers and Crosshcads. 



/. Guide-bearer. 2. Guide-bearer Knee. j. Top Guide-bar. 
4. Bottom Guide-bar. 5. Guide-fillings. 6. Crosshead. 7. Cross- 
head Gibs. 8. Crosshead Filling-piece. 9. Cross/wad Plate. 
10. Crosshead Pin. 11. Crosshead Key. 



H2 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What provision is there to reduce the wear 
of the guides and slides to a minimum ? 

A. The guides are hard and finely finished, and 
the slides are fitted with gibs of brass or bronze 
between them and the guides; these being adjust- 
able so that as they wear they may be set out to 
take up the lost motion. The gibs or wearing- 
pieces being softer than the guides, get neatly all 
the wear, which is desirable, because they are cheaper 
to renew ; and they may be set out quite readily , by 
liners or otherwise. 

Q. Is there any provision for bringing the 
guide-bars nearer together when they are worn, 
or for other reasons f 

A. Where they are double, one above and one 
below, or one pair above and one pair below, 
they are held at a fixed distance apart by end- 
blocks or distance-pieces ; and these latter being re- 
moved and planed off to any desired extent allow of 
this sort of adjustment ; or another way is to provide 
liners at first and to have them removed from between 
the end-blocks and the guide bars, as the gibs wear. 

Q. Is the wear on the guides uniform ? 

A. No ; not where, as is usually the case, the 
engine runs more in one direction than in the other. 

Q. Where is there the greatest strain on a 
slide-bar ? 

A. At the centre of length, by reason of its having 
less support there, and of the angularity of the con- 
necting-rod being greatest there. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 113 

Q. Which slide-bar gets the most wear in run- 
ning ahead ? 

A. The upper one. 

Q. Why is this f 

A. Because on the out stroke, towards the crank, 
when the connecting-rod is below the crosshead it is 
in compression and throws the latter up against the 
slide; and on the in stroke (from the crank,) when 
the connecting-rod is above the crosshead it is in 
tension and tends to draw the latter up against the 
same bar. 

Q. Which slide-bar gets the most wear in run- 
ning backwards, that is, tender first f 

A. The bottom one, because on the in stroke the 
connecting-rod when below the crosshead is in ten- 
sion and tends to drag the latter against the under 
slide, and on the out stroke when the connecting- 
rod is above the crosshead it is in compression and 
tends to thrust the latter against the bottom slide. 

Q. How is the pressure on the piston communi- 
cated to the wheel so as to make it rotate in the 
same direction, no matter whether the piston is 
making its inward or its outward single stroke ? 

A. By the connecting-rod and crank. 

Q. What is the character of motion of the 
connecting-rod ? 

A. The front end has a true reciprocating motion 
exactly corresponding to that of the crosshead ; the 
rear end has a true rotary motion exactly corre- 
sponding to that of the crank-pin : and all inter- 
mediate points have motions combining the two 



ii 4 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

classes, and with more or less of the reciprocating or 
rotary character according as they are nearer the 
the crosshead or the crank-pin. 

Q. Is there any loss of power by the use of 
the connecting-rod and crank, by reason of the 
fact that the angle at which the connecting-rod 
acts on the crank and that at which it receives 
the pressure of the piston, constantly vary in 
each half rotation of the crank-pin? 

A. None whatever, except that due to friction. 

Q. At what point in the rotation have the pis- 
ton and crosshead the most power to cause the 
crank to rotate ? 

A. At that point (about mid- stroke of the cross- 
head) where the crank-pin is about at the uppermost 
or the lowermost point in its rotation. 

Q. How much power have the piston and cross- 
head to turn the crank-pin when the centres of 
the wrist-pin, the crank-pin and the main driv- 
ing-axle are in the same straight line ? 

A. None whatever. 

Q. How then is the engine kept going ? 

A. The cranks are set quartering so that when 
one side is on the dead centre the other is about at 
its maximum power. 

Q. Is there no means of preventing this diffi- 
culty of having dead centres f 

A. Quartering the cranks gets around it well 
enough. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



115 



Q. What sort of a stress does the connecting- 
rod get ? 

A. When the piston is making its ont stroke 
(towards the stuffing-box) it is in compression ; and 
on the return or in stroke, it is in tension. 

Q. What is the most common-shape of con- 
necting-rod ? 

A. As now made most frequently, there are flat 
wrought-iron bars, larger at the crank-pin end than 
at the wrist-pin end, and having a cross section 
either rectangular, or modified from the rectangular 
by milling out wide flutes to remove material from 
the lengthwise centre-line, where material gives the 
least strength. 

Q. Why are they made larger at the crank-pin 
end than at the wrist-pin end ? 



(©] 




Fig. 71. Rod Ends. 

A. Partly because the crank-pin should be larger 
than the wrist-pin, and partly because experience 
has shown that that end is most liable to break. 



n6 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. What class of bearing is given the wrist- 
pin and crank-pins, in the ends of the rods ? 

A. There are two classes. In one the rod is 
enlarged into a stub-end having a |""|- shaped strap 
by which half-brasses are held in place around the 




© 



^ 

y- 



p 



Fig. 72. Rod Ends. 

pin, and which may be set up as desired. In the 
other, the pins turn in bushes which are hydrauli- 
cally pressed into the eyes in the ends of the rods, 
and which have no capability of adjustment ; in fact 
cannot be taken out except at the shop. 

Q. How is the adjustment of the brasses 
effected, with the ordinary stub-end and strap ? 

A. There are keys by which the brasses may be 
closed up on the pins, up to that point where their 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 117 

faces touch ; then to get any more adjustment they 
must be taken out and their faces filed off to enable 
them to be further set up. 

Q. In this latter case what is the shape of the 
hole in which the pin rotates, after the brasses 
have been thus planed off or fled off and set up ? 

A. Its outline is that formed by two circular arcs 
each rather less than a semi-circle. 

Q. How are the crank-pin journals oiled f 

A. By metal cups attached to the straps, where 
the stub-end type of rod is used, or to the enlarged 
head of the rod where solid bushings are employed. 
Sometimes also, in the stub- end type, there are on 
the under side of the straps recesses or ' ' cellars ' ' 
for oil, which is dashed up against the pins, through 
holes in the under leg of the strap. 

Q. What material is employed for the brasses ? 

A. Sometimes brass, sometimes bronze ; these 
being sometimes plain, but generally supplied with 
babbitt plugs or strips cast in them to lessen friction 
and wear. 

Q. When a main rod has one key back of the 
crosshead-pin and another back of the main 
crank-pin, what is the effect on the effective rod- 
length when both keys are tightened by reason of 
the brass-wear ? 

A. It will be left practically the same. 

Q. Where one key is at the front of the crank- 
pin and the other back of the wrist-pin, what is 



n8 LOCOMOTIVE CATKCHISM. 

the effect on the effective rod-length when both 
are driven up f 

A. To lengthen it. 

Q. What is the use of the cotpling-rods ? 

A. To enable the nse of more than one pair of 
drivers, thns lessening the weight on any one axle, 
and on any one point of the rail. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of coupling-rods ? 

A. They lengthen the rigid wheel-base and some- 
what complicate the difficulties of balancing the 
engine. 

Q. What other names are given to the coup- 
ling-rods ? 

A. Parallel rods, side-rods. 

Q. What is the form given to the coupling- 
rods ? 

A. Usually they are flat wrought-iron bars en- 
larged at the ends to receive the pin-brasses, usually 
with the side milled out so as to remove material 
where it gives less strength. Plain flat rods of rect- 
angular section are common, but modern designs 
usually have the fluted or I-section. 

Q. Why is a cotpling-rod or side-rod some- 
times called a parallel rod ? 

A. Because it is always parallel with the one on 
the opposite side and with the rails. 

Q. What shape is usually given to the parallel 
rods or side-rods ? 

A. About the same cross section as the connect- 
ing-rods or main rods, but of equal width at each 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



119 



end, or even slightly wider in trie middle of their 
length than at the ends. Figure 73 shows 
the main rod outside the coupling-rod ; in figure 74, 
it is inside. In figure 75, the crosshead is outside 




Figs. 73 and 74. 

A. Main Rod. B. Parallel Bar or Coupling Pin. 1. Front 
Stub-end. 2. Back Stub-end. j. Strap. 4. Brass. 5. Key. 

both the back and the second coupling- rods. In fig- 
ure 76, there are back, second and third coupling- 
rods, the connecting-rod being outside of all of them 
and between the second and third. In figure yy y 
there are back, second, third and fourth coupling- 
rods, the connecting-rod being outside of all of them 
and between the second and third. 

Q. What classes of wear and stress do side- 
rods get that main rods do not get ? 

A. There is play between the axle-boxes and 



120 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 




Figs- 75 , 76 and 77. Rods, Straps and Brasses. 
A. Main-rod. B. Back Parallel Rod. C. Second Parallel 
Rod. D. Third Parallel Rod. E. Fourth Parallel Rod. 1 . Front 
Stub End. 2. Back Stub-end. 3. Strap. 4. Brass. 5. Key. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 121 

wedges, that lets the axles run out of adjustment. If 
the track is uneven the rods will be thrown out of 
parallel ; if the tires wear unevenly that changes the 
effective diameters of the wheels and makes one of 
them eithei slip or skid ; and they also suffer on 
curves, when brakes are put on suddenly, when run- 
ning on slippery rails, or when sand is used without 
judgment. 

Q. What is the advantage of having a coup- 
ling-1'od wider in the middle than at the ends ? 

A. To give increased stiffness in the vertical 
plane. 

Q. What is the advantage of having a coup- 
ling-rod thinner in the centre than at the ends f 
A. To give it lateral flexibility. 

Q. In consolidation engines, which coupling- 
rods have the most work to do ? 
A. The centre ones. 

Q. Why are the side-rods of a Mogul engine 
made in two pieces forming a front and a rear 
side-rod for each side of the engine ? 

A. To enable the driving-axles to move up and 
down in their pedestals, independently of each other. 

Q. Why is not the piiv which connects the front 
and the rear side-rod of a Mogul engine put 
back of the main pin f 

A. To keep it from being covered by the main 
rod, which in Mogul engines is usually outside of 
the coupling-rods. (See figure 75.) 

Q. Should the pin between the front and t lie 



122 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

back coupling-rods be put near to the main pin or 
far from it ? 

A. Near to it, to lessen the strain on the main- 
pin strap. 

Q. Why are there three coupling-rods on each 
side of a consolidation engine ? 

A. To enable its driving axles to rise and fall 
independently of each other. 

Q. What is the usual way of connecting the 
coupling-rods of a consolidation engine ? 

A. The middle rod connects two wheels ; its straps 
have forged ends to which the other conpling-rods 
are connected. (See figure 76.) 

Q. In eight-wheel engines, which usually come 
outside, the main rods or the coupling-rods ? 

A . The coupling-rods ; except on narrow-gage 
engines, where it is sometimes the other way. 

Q. In consolidation engines what is the usage 
about knuckle joints ? 

A. There is one back of the main pin and another 
in front of the coupling-rod pin ; or back of the pins 
in the third pair of drivers and close to them, and in 
front of and close to the pins in the second pair. 

Q. Why are the coipling-rod pins in Mogul 
and ten-wheel engines smaller than on an eight- 
wheel engine ? 

A. Because in the former there is greater distribu- 
tion of the pressure. 

Q. On this principle may consolidation engines 
have smaller coupling-rod pins than Moguls ? 

A. Yes. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 123 

Q. How are coupling-rod brasses usually 
keyed ? 

A. With two keys at one end and one at the 
other, or with two at each end. 

Q. Why is the strap on the front end of the 
connecting-rod totally rounded off at its end f 

A. To give the strap clearance in the crosshead. 

Q. Should main-rod brasses be babbitted ? 

A. They have been found to run cooler with than 
without babbitt, even where made of phosphor 
bronze. 

Q. Should side-rod brasses be babbitted ? 

A. Yes, but it is not so often done with main rods. 

Q. How may side-rod brasses be protected from 
dust f 

A. By having caps cast on them. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of such caps ? 

A. They hinder inspection of the pin. 

Q, Should the brasses extend to the edges of 
the strap f 

A. Yes, to exclude dust, and to prevent shoulder- 
ing of the strap. 

Q. What name is given to sticli cranks as are 
used on the ordinary English inside-cylinder 
locomotive ? 

A. Centre cranks ; inside cranks ; full cranks. 

Q. What name is given to such cranks as 



124 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

are used on the ordinary American standard 
outside-cylinder locomotive ? 

A. Half cranks. 

Q. How are the inside cranks or full cranks 
of an English locomotive made ? 

A. By forging a large mass on the axle, at the 
place where there is to be a crank, and slotting it ont 
to form the crank, then turning the pin in place ; or 
by bending the axle by hydraulic pressure to the 
required throw and similarly turning the pins. 

Q. What is the objection to the inside-crank 
locomotive ? 

A. Frequent breakage of the crank- axle. 

Q. How are the cranks of a standard outside- 
cylinder American locomotive made ? 

A. Each one is a part of the driving-wheel on 
that side ; in the same way as what is known as a 
disk crank on a stationary engine. 

Q. In the ordinary type of locomotive engine, 
how are the cranks arranged ? 

A. One of them at right angles to the other, in 
order that when one of the two cranks is on its 
dead centre, the other can start the engine. 

Q. Of what material are the crank-pins made f 

A. Of tough wrought iron of the very best quality, 
or of low steel ; turned and preferably ground to 
exact size and shape, and then either driven in or 
pressed into the holes bored for them in the wheels. 

Q. Are these holes usually cylindrical or tap- 



ei 



? 



nng 
A. Cylindrical. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 125 

Q. How is the pin kept from coming out, in 
case the holes and the ends of the pins are conical 
or tapering? 

A. By a nut and key on the inside of the wheel. 

Q. What is the advantage of steel crank- 
pins ? 

A. They will stand more pressure than wrought 
iron, without abrasion. 

Q. What is their disadvantage ? 
A. They are more apt to snap. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of excessive 
length of crank-pin f 

A. They are liable to break off, especially on 
curves. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of excessive 
crank-pin thickness ? 

A. Excessive friction. 

Q. What sort of stress does the crank pin get ? 

A. In an outside-connected engine it gets a bend- 
ing stress and also one tending to shear it off at the 
point where it is inserted in the wheel. In one with 
inside cylinders the tendency besides to bend it is to 
shear it off where it enters the crank web. 

Q. What is the advantage of having the inner 
journal of a main crank-pin concave f 

A. To make it less rigid and to permit more flexi- 
bility on curves. 

Q. Under what circumstances is the rotative 
effect of the pistons on the cranks the greatest f 



126 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. When the two cranks are in front of the axle 
and at angles of 45 ° with the horizontal. 

Q. When is it the least f 

A. When both cranks are back of the axle and 
about 54 from the horizontal line. 

Q. What is the reason of this ? 

A. Because when both cranks are in front of the 
axle, both connecting-rods are in position to do their 
maximum work ; when one is in front and the other 
back of the axle, one is at the best advantage and 
the other at the poorest ; and when both are back of 
the axle, both of them are at their minimum power. 

Q. What other advantages is there in working 
steam with cut-off, besides saving steam f 

A. There is a tendency to equalize the action of 
the connecting-rod on the crank all through the 
rotation, there being greatest steam-pressure where 
the rod has least leverage on the crank-pin, and 
vice versa. 

Q. In ten-wheel, Mogul, and consolidation en- 
gines, which rod ttsually takes hold of the inner 
jouriial of the main crank-pin ? 

A. The coupling-rod. 

Q. In what position are the steam-chests ? 

A. In American engines, on top; (see figure 1, 
page 11;) in British engines, or at least on those 
which have inside cylinders on the sides next the 
centre line of the locomotive. 

Q. What are the advantages of having the 
chests on top f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 127 

A. The engine is kept within less width than if 
they were on the side. 

Q, What are the disadvantages ? 

A. The cylinder is more difficult to free from 
water than if the valve was on the side or beneath. 

Q. What are the advantages of having the 
valve-chest and slide-valves of a locomotive 
on the sides of the cylinders, as in the English 
inside-connected engines f 

A. The cylinders are more readily drained of 
water. 

Q. Where is the valve-chamber of the Vau- 
clain engine f 

A. In the cylinder- saddle, as shown, between the 
boiler and the cylinder. (Figures 56 and 57. ) 

Q. How are the steam-chests made ? 

A. They usually consist of rectangular frames 
forming chests or boxes without either top or bottom, 
fastened to the cylinder- casting by a steam-tight 
joint, and having a cast-iron cover of considerable 
strength to resist the internal steam-pressure on its 
flat surface. 

Q. How are the valve-seats made f 

A. They are planed as true as the planer will 

make them, then filed and scraped until they are 

smooth and practically plane. 

Q. What name is given to the plate covering the 
top of the steam-chest ? 

A. The steam-chest cap, as distinguished from 
the casing above it. 



128 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What name is given to the other casing on 
top of the steam-chest ? 

A. The steam-chest cover, as distinguished from 
the cap which it covers. 

Q. What is the most simple and usual type of 
slide-valve used for an American standard 
locomotive f 

A. The valve consists in effect of a plate or block, 
such as is shown in section figure 58, page 97, hav- 
ing in its under surface a cavity which extends at 
right angles to the direction of travel of the valve, 
and parallel with the ports in the valve-seat. Cross- 
wise projections from the top of the valve enable the 
valve-rod to be attached either by screws and nuts or 
by a collar or frame surrounding the projections in 
such a manner that the valve is free to change its 
position with respect to the valve- rod, as its face 
and that of its seat wear away. 

Q, Describe the seat upon which this type of 
plain slide-valve or short D-valve is placed f 

A. As shown in figure 53, page 92, and in figures 
58 and 81, it consists of a plain surface having in it 
three ports, all of which are at right angles to the 
direction of motion of the piston and of the valve. 
The central one of these communicates with the 
exhaust-passage, and the end ones with the cylinder, 
at the counterbore. There are usually shoulders at 
each end so that the valve may in its travel extend 
beyond them, instead of cutting away material and 
wearing a low place in the seat. 

Q. What would be the effect of omitting the 
shoulders in the seat f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 129 

A. If the valve was given a short amount of travel 
and wore itself a low place in the seat, there would 
be either a smash-up or a leak between the steam- 
chest and the cylinder, if the travel was increased 
or the valve was adjusted so as to be brought 
nearer to or further from the crosshead end of the 
cylinder. 

Q m What are the f tine tions of the valve? 

A. To admit steam from the steam-chest into each 
end of the cylinder, up to a certain point in the 
stroke ; then to cut it off from that end of the cylin- 
der ; then to release it from that end into the ex- 
haust-pipe ; and in some cases to close the exhaust 
before all the waste steam that has done work has 
been exhausted. 

Q. How is the position of the valve with re- 
spect to the ports, the distances between the port- 
edges, the widths of the ports, and the dimensions 
of the valve itself, arranged so that it will do all 
these thinos f 

A. The arch of the valve must be of such a width 
(in the direction of the valve-travel) as about to 
reach from the inside edge of one steam-port to the 
inside edge of the other ; each leg or lip of the valve 
must when the valve is in such a position that the 
arch will so reach (this being called its mid -posi- 
tion) be at least long or wide enough (in the direc- 
tion of the valve-travel) to entirely cover its end 
port. 

Q. How about the travel of the valve ? 

A. It may be more or less according to the points 
at which it is desired to cut off the admission of the 
steam and to close the exhaust. 



130 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. What is the character of the valve of the 
Vauclain compound engine f 




Fig. 78. Hollow Piston Valve, Vauclain Compound Locomotive- 

A. It is a hollow piston having cast-iron rings 
sprung into place just like ordinary piston-rings ; it 



•" 


%, 




-•'*''■ _«»««««£-■■ *&&*■ 








„..,_-. . ■ • - ^ 


*» 




■* - 


- ' ■/.■/_,•-— ". 


. •- " : : ." ■■•■■ "' ::, 


4fe • >\ 










J 






BBW^!^ 







Fig. 79. Bushing of Piston-valve Seat, Vauclain Compound 
Locomotive. 

is practically, in working, two D- valves the two 
ends of which control admission and exhaust to and 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 131 

from trie high-pressure cylinder, trie inner rings 
doing trie same for the low. Figure 78 shows the 
valve ; figure 79 shows the ported seat or bushing in 
which it plays. 

Q. How is the admission of steam cut off before 
the piston has reached stroke-end ? 

A. By having the legs or lips of the valve longer 
than is necessary to seal the end ports, and by so 
timing the position of the valve with respect to the 
piston, that after opening the end port for admission 
of steam it shall return and close that port before the 
piston has reached stroke-end. 

Q. What name is given to the excess of length 
of leg or lip of the valve at each end, over what 
is barely required to cover the end port f 

A. Steam lap or outside lap, or simply lap. 

Q. What is the relation between the lap and 
the degree of expansion f 

A. The greater the lap for a given valve-travel, 
the earlier the steam is cut off, and the greater the 
degree of expansion. 

Q. What is the relation between the valve- 
travel and the point of cut-off and degree of 
expansion f 

A. The greater the travel for a given amount of 
lap, the later the cut-off and the less the degree of 
expansion. 

Q. If the valve had its lips just long enotigh 
to cover the end ports when in mid-position, was 
at mid-position when the piston zvas at stroke-end y 



i 3 2 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

and was given an equal degree of travel in each 
direction from its mid-position, what would be 
the effect upon the steam-distribution f 

A. If the valve had its travel so that it was back 
again at mid-position when the piston reached stroke- 
end, there would be steam- admission during full 
stroke, irrespective of the amount of valve- travel and 
port-opening. 

Q. What effect would the amount of valve- 
travel have upon the steam-admission in this case, 
where the valve started from mid-position at 
beginning of stroke and reached mid-position 
again at stroke-end? 

A. The longer the travel the fuller the steam-admis- 
sion would be. 

Q. How long should the travel be in order to 
give the full degree of steam-admission without 
choking ? 

A. That depends upon the length of the port as well 
as upon its width ; also upon the piston-speed. The 
narrower the port and the higher the piston-speed, 
the greater the valve- travel should be. 

Q. Is there any visual rule for port-area ? 

A. There is one, but it is " more honored in the 
breach than in the observance. " It is to give, for 
600 feet piston-speed, a port-area of 1-10 the piston- 



area. 



Q. What is the effect of giving the valve-legs 
or lips a certain lap inside the inside edges of the 
end ports ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 133 

A. To cause the exhaust to be closed before the 
piston gets to stroke-end, thereby giving what is 
called cushion or compression. 

Q. What are the advantages of compression or 
cushioit ? 

A. To enable a fast-running engine to get over 
the centres without knocking ; and by compressing the 
exhaust steam, that has done work, between the pis- 
ton and the valve- face, to save steam by making it 
take less new steam from the chest to fill the clear- 
ance-space when the valve opens for admission at or 
near the beginning of the new stroke (which is the 
same thing as the end of the old one). 

Q. Is there any other way of enabling the pis- 
ton to reverse its motion without shock, than by 
cushioning the exhaust steam f 

A. Yes, giving " steam lead ;" that is, causing the 
live steam to enter before the piston starts out on 
the new stroke. 

Q. What is the travel of a valve ? 

A. The entire distance that it moves along the 
valve-face, irrespective of whether its motion causes 
port- opening or not, this being in locomotives a vari- 
able quantity according to whether there is demand 
for early or late cut-off. 

Q. What is the relation between the travel of 
the valve and the throw of the eccentric ? 

A. If the rocker-arm has arms of equal length, the 
valve- travel is the same as the eccentric- throw. If 
the rocker has arms of unequal length, then the 
valve-travel will have the same relation to the eccen- 



i 3 4 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

trie- throw, as the rocker- arm next the valve stem 
has to that below it. 

0. What is the difference between the " throw" 
and the " eccentricity " of an eccentric? 

A. The throw is twice the eccentricity, the latter 
being the distance between the centre of the axle and 
the centre of the eccentric-sheave. 

Q. What effect has inside lap upon the time of 
exhaust commencement ? 

A. It delays it. 

Q. What effect has outside lap upon the time 
of opening for exhaust f 

A. It makes it take place earlier than it wonld if 
there was no lap. 

Q. What effect has outside lap upon exhaust- 
release or opening f 

A. It causes it to take place earlier. 

Q. Where is inside lap usually employed ? 

A. In high-speed engines having very late cut-off, 
where compression takes place during about one-half 
the stroke and release commences when the crank 
is within 40 of the zero line. 

Q. What is the effect upon the steam distri- 
bution, of inside lap or exhaust lap f 

A. To prolong expansion, and to hasten compres- 
sion or cushion. 

Q. What is the effect upon the steam distri- 
bution of inside clearance or negative inside lap f 

A. To shorten expansion, and to delay compres- 
sion or cushion. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 135 

Q. By what means is the valve attached to 
and driven by the valve-rod or valve-stem f 

A. Ordinarily by a yoke which embraces it so as 
to permit it and the chest to be worn down or planed 
down without bringing the valve-rod too low in the 
stuffing-box. 

Q. What provision is made to prevent the 
valve from wearing shoulders in the seat at the 
points ending its most usual travel? 

A. The seat is slightly raised above the bottom of 
the chest, so that the valve overruns it, as may be 
seen in the lengthwise section of the valve- seat, 
(figure 53.) The raising of the valve-seat above the 
bottom of the chest also allows for wear and permits 
planing off without trouble. 

Q. What would be the disadvantage of having 
too short a valve-seat f 

A. At full gear, steam would pass under the valve 
into the port which was being used for exhaust. 

Q.. What is the advantage of having the front 
and back sides of the slide-valve extended above 
its arch ? 

A. It gives a good bearing for the valve-yoke, and 
enables the valve to be laid and held on its back for 
planing. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of the recesses on 
the valve top ? 

A. Sometimes they hold oil that should go into the 
cylinder. 

Q. By what means is the slide-valve lubri- 
cated? 



136 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. By oil let into the chest by a pipe running 
back to the cab, where it bears an oil-cup, the now 
of oil from this to the chest being controlled by the 
cylinder oil-cock or cylinder- oiler. 

Q. What is the effect of great valve-travel ? 

A. Great friction between the valve and seat, 
unless there is some way of counteracting it. 

Q. How may the valve-travel be lessened with- 
out injuriously diminishing the port-opening ? 

A. By providing supplementary ports and passages, 
as shown in what is known as the 
Allen or Trick valve, seen in figure 
80. There is a step or shoulder on 
the valve- face, and a passage through 
._ the valve itself in such fashion that 
anced Valve, Penn- as the outside edge of the valve at 
sylvania Railroad, either end commences to uncover 

SKStad Sectto h n the steam P ort at that end > the SU P- 

to one side of Cen- plementary passage commences to 

tre - receive steam at the other end, and 

passes it over to be discharged into the same port, 
beside the stream of steam coming by the outside 
edge of the valve. 

Q. Where is this valve most needed, and 
where is it of most use f 

A. It is most needed at high speed where the 
valve-travel is shortest and it is of most use here ; 
also giving double the opening with a given valve- 
travel. 

Q. How may it be proved that it is economical 
ofstea7nf 




LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



137 



A. By the fact that some engines which have been 
nnable to run past a certain water-tank without 
taking water, when they were equipped with the 
ordinary plain D slide-valve, have been able to go on 




Fig. 81. Allen Balanced Valve, Pennsylvania Railroad Engine, 
Class " O." Central Lengthwise Vertical Section. 




P^I 



Fig. 82. 



Allen Balanced Valve, Pennsylvania Railroad Engine, 
Class " O." Vertical Cross Section. 



138 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

to the next one when the valve was changed to the 

Allen. 

Q. Can the Allen valve be used on the old 
seat ? 

A. Yes ; bnt it is sometimes desirable that the 
steam-ports be widened a trifle by chamfering their 
outside edges. 

Q. What special precaution must be taken 
with the Allen valve, as regards its travel ? 

A. That it should not travel so far as to bring the 
supplementary port over the exhaust-port of the seat ; 
in which case live steam would blow through. 

Q. What precaution needs to be taken in design- 
ing the valve itself, independent of the amount of 
travel ? 

A. That the walls of the passage through it be 
strong enough to stand the steam pressure. 

Q. What precaution needs to be taken in the 
mantifacture of the valve itself after it is de- 
signed ? 

A. That the coring is good, in order that the 
passage through it may be of full size and may have 
smooth walls. 

Q. What is the principal objection to the 
ordinary slide-valve f 

A. That there is on its back a pressure tending to 
force it down against the valve-seat and thus increase 
the friction and wear. 

Q. How may this be remedied ? 
A. By causing it to play steam-tight but freely 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 139 

against a back- pi ate parallel to the valve-seat, thus 
removing a large part of the unbalanced pressure. 

O. Hozv are such valves ttsually constructed ? 

A. In one of the most common types (the Rich- 
ardson) there is a flat plate held out from the chest- 
cover parallel with the valve, the top of which latter 
is faced off plain ; and packing-strips are held against 
the plate by springs. There is a hole from the ex- 
haust-arch of the valve to the space included between 
the valve-back and the balance-plate, and bounded 
by the packing- strips ; the object of this hole being 
to let any steam that might pass the packing -strips, 
escape through the exhaust. Figures 80, 81 and 82, 
show the balanced Allen valve in class u O " engines, 
Pennsylvania Railroad. 

Q. What prevents air and cinders being sucked 
into the steam-chest through the exhaust-pipes, 
iv hen steam is off, and the pisto7i working f 

A. A relief- valve in the end of the steam- chest, 
opening inwards into the chest, and thus permitting 
air to enter the chest through it, instead of coming 
by way of the exhaust-pipes and drawing cinders 
with it. 

0. How was the Bristol roller slide-valve 
made f 

A. The valve rested on a number of small rollers 
RR (figures 83, 84), each side connected to a frame, 
their axles having a little play in their journals. 
Steel plates were attached to the valve on each side 
and others to the valve-seat, so that the rollers 
rested on the latter below and the valve was carried by 



140 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



the upper plates, which in turn rested on the rollers. 
The pressure of the valve was carried on the rollers ; 




Fig. 83. Bristol Roller Valve. 

and as it wore there was little or no contact between 
its face and seat. 




Fig. 84. Bristol Roller Valve. 

Q. What is the linear lead, or simply the lead y 

of a valve ? 

A. The amount that the port is open at the moment 
the crank passes the centre. 

Q. What is meant by lead-angle ? 
A. The angular distance of the crank from its 
zero-point when the port commences to open. 

Q. Does lead have any effect upon the conti- 
nuity of the crank-motion ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 141 

A. No ; because it is so small an angle that the 
lever-arm is very small. 

Q. What are the limits of lead-angle for 
stationary engines? 
A. Between zero and 8°. 
Q. What are the objects of lead ? 

A. To conceal and neutralize a difficulty due to 
bad workmanship and to wear of boxes and pins, as, 
well as to enable the cylinder-space back of the pis- 
ton to be filled with steam at full chest-pressure at 
an early point in the stroke ; also to enable the ex- 
haust to be made more easily. 

Q. What effect has lead upon the various ele- 
ments of distribution : admission, cut-off, release, 
and cushion f 

A. It causes all of them to take place earlier, other 
things being equal, than if there was no lead. 

Q. How is a valve given lead : by its construc- 
tion, or by its setting ? 

A. By the setting of the eccentric with relation to 
the crank- pin. 

Q. How is the valve given lead by the setting 
of the eccentric f 

A. The eccentric is advanced still further beyond 
the point 90 ° from the crank, which it would have if 
there was no lead. Thus, if there is no rocker- arm, 
the eccentric is run still further ahead of the eccen- 
tric in the direction in which it is to run the axle. 
If there is a rocker-arm it is run still further back of 
the crank, or in the opposite direction to that in 
which the engine is to run the axle. 



142 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. Where no rvcker is used how may the linear 
lead be measured f 

A. It will be exactly the amount of offset of the 
eccentric from a vertical line. 

Q. If the valve has the same amount of lap at 
each end, will cut-off take place at the same point 
in both ends of the cylinder ? 

A. No ; the reason being that the connecting-rod 
introduces irregularities between the piston movement 
and the valve movement. 

Q. What is the nature of these irregularities f 

A. When the crosshead is at C, the out end of the 

stroke (see figure 85,) the crank-pin will be at c, on 

the outboard dead centre. When the crosshead is at 

B, in the middle of its stroke, the crank-pin will not 




Fig. 85. Effect of Angularity of Connecting-rod. 

be at the quarter point of its path, but at b ; when 
the crosshead is at A or inboard stroke end, the crank- 
pin will be at #, or the half -point of its path ; and on 
the return stroke, when the crosshead is again at 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 143 

mid-stroke, at B, trie crank-pin will have made less 
than the quarter circle from C, and will be at b' . 

Q. What relation has the connecting-rod (main 
rod) to the amount of this irregularity ? 

A. The shorter the connecting-rod the greater the 
irregularity. 

Q. What would be the disadvantage of giving 
great length of main rod in order to lessen the 
irregularity ? 

A. It would increase the necessary length of the 
engine, and also the amount of unbalanced weight. 

Q. How may this irregularity of cut-off, 
caused by the angularity of the connecting-rod, be 
done away with ? 

A. By giving the valve more lap upon that end at 
which the cut-off would be earliest if the laps 
were the same at both ends of the valve. 

Q. Can shifting-link motions be arranged with 
constant lead for various gears ? 

A. Yes; but only for various gears of one direction 
of the motion ; thus, if the lead is constant for all 
forward gears from mid to full, it will vary on the 
backward gears. 

Q. How may this be done with the ordinary 
open-rod shifting-link motion f 

A. By giving the forward eccentric more angular 
advance than the backing eccentric ; of course experi- 
menting with the angular advance given, until the 
lead is seen to be constant at every position. In this 
case the lead-opening will be constant for all forward 



144 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

gear positions, and will diminish from mid-gear to 
full back gear. 

Q. What would be the effect of giving the back- 
ing eccentric of this open-rod shifting-link motion 
more angular advance than the forward f 

A. To give constant lead for all backward posi- 
tions, and varying lead for all forward- gear positions 
— this of course implying that the proper excess of 
angular advance was given. 

Q. Suppose that we have a shifting-link motion 
in which the greatest slip comes in full gear, and 
it is desired to reduce the slip, how may it be 
redttced ? 

A. In four ways : by increasing the angular 
advance ; by reducing the valve-travel ; by increas- 
ing the length of the link, or by shortening the 
eccentric-rods. 

Q. How about the lead in the stationary-link 
motion f 

A. It is constant for all gears ; although the lead- 
angle increases as much as with the shifting link. 

Q. How about the lead with this motion, if the 
rods are crossed ? 

A. It has constant lead both with crossed and with 
uncrossed rods. 

Q. Does the shifting link change the angular 
advance of the eccentric? 

A. No. 

Q. Does the stationary link change the angular 
distance of the eccentric ? 

A. Yes. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 145 

O. Where there are no rockers and links, 
what will the travel of the valve be ? 

A. Equal to the eccentric- throw. 

0. Does the lead vary with a shifting link ? 

A. Yes. 

Q Does the lead vary with a stationary link ? 

A. No. 

Q. What is the valve-gear ? 

A. The mechanism by which the slide-valves are 
-operated by the main driving-axle. 

Q. Under what iwo principal classes may loco- 
motive driving-gears be divided f 

A. Into link-motion gears and radial gears. 

Q. What is a link-motion gear ? 

A. One. in which the valve receives its motion 
from a piece driven by a strip, the two ends of which 
are actuated by eccentrics on the driving-axle. 

Q. What is a radial gear ? 

A. One in which the valve derives its motion from 
the crosshead or from the connecting-rod, instead of 
from a rotating piece as an eccentric or an axle. 

Q What are the requisites of a Ijconw'ive 
valve -gear ? 

A. It must be capable of driving the engine in 
either direction, forwards or backwards, of chang- 
ing the direction of motion in a moment from full 
speed one way to full speed the other ; and of giving 
all shades of power from nothing to maximum, in 
either direction : besides which it must be able to 



146 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

work steam with great economy by expansion, 
where this is required, and with great power without 
regard to economy where occasion calls for this. 

Q. Which of these two classes of valve-gears 
is most common with American locomotives f 

A. The link-motion is almost universal in this 
country, and the principal one employed in other 
countries also. 

Q. In the most common form of American 
locomotive, what is the character of the link f 

A. It is a curved piece of metal, having in it a 
slot of circular curvature, the concavity of which is 
towards the eccentric. In this slot plays accurately 
a block, which may pass from one end to the other 
thereof. This block is attached to the lower arm by 
a pin which serves as a pivot. The two eccentric- 
rods are attached to the ends of the link by pins 
serving also as pivots. The link itself has across it, 
as shown in figure 91, a plate to which is attached a 
pin, by which the link is hung by a nearly vertical 
link-hanger to the lower end of a lifting-arm borne 
on a horizontal shaft parallel with the axle. This 
lifting-arm may be raised and lowered, carrying the 
link with it, by a nearly vertical arm, which is con- 
nected by a nearly horizontal reverse-rod to a nearly 
vertical reverse-lever in the cab. Moving the upper 
end of the reverse-lever forward and backwards lowers 
and raises the link. The weight of the link and of 
otherwise unbalanced parts of the gear is balanced by 
a spring. In England these same otherwise unbal- 
anced parts are balanced by a weight. 

Q. What name is given to this link-motion f 

A. The Stephenson or shifting-link gear. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 147 

Q. What is the effect of raising the link so 
that the link-block and rocker-pin will be below 
both the eccentric-rods ? 

A. If the links are uncrossed, the effect will be to 
drive the block almost entirely with the lower eccen- 
tric-rod. 

Q. What is the effect of lowering the link so 
that the block and rocker-pin will be above both 
the eccentric-rods ? 

A. If the links are not crossed, the effect will be 
to drive the block almost entirely with the upper 
eccentric-rod. 

Q. What is the effect upon the motion of the 
valve, of placing the reverse-lever in such a posi- 
tion as to bring the block at the centre of the 
link ? 

A. The motion of one eccentric and its rod will 
counteract that of the other, and either at or near 
the centre of the link-slot or at " mid-gear, ' > the 
block will have no motion either way, no matter 
which way the eccentrics run ; or to put it the other 
way, the valve will be in such a position as to run 
the engine neither way. 

Q. Are the eccentric-rods of the Stephenson 
valve-gear ever so arranged as to be crossed in- 
stead of open or uncrossed, when both the eccen- 
trics are on the same side of the axle as the 
link ? 

A. Yes ; in some engines they are arranged so as 
to be as shown in figure 86, in which F is the centre 
of the forward-eccentric sheave, and B the centre of 



148 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



the backing-eccentric sheave, A being the axle cen- 
tre, and M being the lower rocker-pin. In figure 87, 
which is the ordinary method of arrangement in 




Stephenson L,ink, Crossed Rods. 

American locomotives, it will be seen that when 
both the eccentrics are on the same side of the axle 
as the link, the rods are not crossed. 




Fig. 87. Stephenson Link, Open Rod; 

Q. What name is applied to that position of 



the gear when the rocker-pin is half way between 
the end of the eccentric rod and the centre of 
the link-slot ? 
A. Half -gear. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 149 

Q. W licit name is given to that position of the 
gear when the rocker-pin is at the centre of the 
link-slot ? 

A. Mid-gear. 

Q. What name is given to that position of the 
gear, when the block and rocker-pin are at the 
end of the link-slot f 

A. Full gear. 

Q. What name is given to the motion with a 
link having a curved slot concave towards the 
driving-axle f 

A. The Stephenson link-motion or shifting-link 
motion. 

Q. With this ordinary link-motion, how late 
can steam be cut-off in the cylinder? 

A. The admission is fairly good up to about seven- 
eighths stroke, although after five-eighths it is such 
as to give best duty ; this depending of course on the 
lap of the valve as well as on the travel which is 
given it by the gear ; the less lap giving the later 
possible cut-off. 

Q. What is the earliest cut-off at which a loco- 
motive can be worked by the ordinary link- 
motion f 

A. There is poor admission as early as one-sixth, 
but fairly good admission as early as one-fourth 
stroke ; although even that early there is wire- 
drawing, 

Q. How does the Stephenson link-motion affect 
the point at which release or exhaust takes place ? 



i 5 o LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. The greater trie travel of the valve, the later 
the release or exhaust. 

Q. With the Stephenson shifting- link motion, 
and open rods, how does the lead vary with the 
position of the link ? 

A. The lead increases with the grade of expan- 
sion ; that is, the earlier the cut-off the greater the 
lead. 

Q. With the Stephenson shifting-link motion, 
as ordinarily made, but with crossed rods, how 
does the link-position affect the lead? 

A. The greater the degree of expansion, or the 
earlier the cut-off, the less the lead. 

Q. Can the Stephenson shifting-link motion be 
so constructed that the lead will be constant with 
varying grades of expansion ? 

A. Yes ; if the link is short, and the eccentric-rods 
long, and the two eccentrics are properly set with 
different angles of advance, the variations of lead 
become practically nothing. 

Q. In tJie shifting-link or Stephenson link- 
motion, what must be the radius of the link-slot ? 

A. It must be equal to the length of the eccen- 
tric-rods. 

Q. How long has the shifting-link motion, 
ordinarily known as the Stephe7ison gear, been 
ttsed on locomotives f 

A. Since 1843, at which time it was invented by 
Howe, and applied to the locomotives of Robert 
Stephenson & Co. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 151 

Q. Has it been much changed since its original 

invention and application f 

A. No. 

Q. At which end does the angularity of the con- 
necting-rod tend to make cut-off later than the 
average or desired amount f 

A. At the forward end. 

Q. How then can the link he arranged so as to 
equalize the gear ? 

A. By giving it greater travel for the forward 
stroke. 

Q. What practical difficulty is there in the 

way ? 

A. That as the link-block moves upon a fixed arc 
while the link rises and falls, for each revolution of 
the crank the link will slip backward and forward a 
certain distance upon its block ; if this slip should 
be very great with the engine linked up in any 
particular position, and the engine should run a 
long time in that gear, the link- faces would be worn, 
there would be lost motion, and the distribution 
would be irregular owing to this wear and lost 
motion. 

Q. At what point is the slip the least f 

A. Near the point of suspension. 

Q. To what does this point in designing a 
link-motion ? 

A. To the fact that if it is desired to have a mini- 
mum of slip at a certain point of suspension, the 



152 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



saddle-stud should be placed as nearly as possible 
over that point. 

Q. What is an " open link "? 

A. One in which the the eccentric-pins instead of 
being back of the link as in figure 88, are as in 
figure 89. 





Fig. 88. Usual Link. 



Fig. 



Open Link. 

Q. What are the peculiarities of the open link- 
as compared with the ordinary link ? 

A. The eccentric-pins move a greater distance than 
the greatest travel of the link-block, and for this 
reason there must be a larger eccentric-circle in order- 
to get a given valve- travel . 

0. To what class of locomotives is this adapted?' 

A. To those where there is no rocker, as in Brit- 
ish practice. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



153- 



O. Hoiv is the open link usually hung? 
A. From the upper eccentric-rod pin ; and with, 
the tumbling- shaft below the central line of motion. 

Q. What is a box link ? 

A. One in which, as seen in figure 90, the pins are 
in the line of the slot itself. 

Q. What are the disadvantages of 
the box link f - 

A. It is mechanically difficult to 
construct, 

Q. Where is the box link best 
adapted ? 

A. Where a short eccentric-throw is 
desired. 

Q. Why is this f 

A. The valve- travel is always about 
the same as the eccentric-circle diam- 
eter. 

Q. Can the box link be used with - 
advantage in places where the ordin- 
ary link with points of suspension 
back of the link is now tised ? Fi< 

A. Very seldom, by reason of the 
excessive slip which it gives in such positions ; and 
in such cases it is usually made a box in construction, 
but with the stud beyond the link- arc. 

Q. How about the use of the box link in place 
of the open link f 

A. It is usually given the point of suspension 
Within the link-arc or between it and the main shaft 




A 



L 
r 


Ft 





¥ 



90. Box: 

Link. 



154 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. How is the reverse-link or link ordinarily 
-made f 

A. In two main parts, the front and the back half 
(as shown in figure 91), with filling-piece 9 between 
them, and a saddle, 10, by which it is suspended by 
the link-lifter 12, which is raised by the reverse- 
shaft 13 ; its weight being counterbalanced by the 
counterbalance-spring 14. 

Q. Would it make any difference if instead of 
the link being slotted with a block sliding in its 
slot, it was a simple bar y embraced by a sliding 
Mock f 

A. The difference would be only constructive ; 
the latter arrangement would be a mechanical equiva- 
lent. 

Q. How is the weight of the shifting link and 
attached parts neutralized ? 

A. In American engines, by a spring ; in many 
European engines by a weight. 

O. What is the objection to the weight ? 

A. It is in rapid motion when the engine is run- 
ning, and sometimes is slung from its position, caus- 
ing damage to the valve-gear or other parts. 

Q. Where a flat spiral spring is used to bal- 
ance the weight of the link, how is its tension 
regulated ? 

A. By turning the case and adjusting the bolt in 
any one of the holes shown in a circle in the illus- 
tration, figure 91. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



155 




fl* 



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<^ s c, c£ 

<S 

. a ^ ^ v 

|!^ 

a N 
^ aO . 

.v> a S s-^ 






■2 «>5>.s 



^8 



■ ^ 

V» ^J ^ 






■^ 



$* 






^ 



5« 






k k 



Vr^fi ^nQ 



156 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What is the character of the motion thai 
the link gets ? 

A. Not only a rocking bnt a reciprocating or to- 
and-fro motion ; the latter being what gives the 
motion to the slide-valve. 




Fig. 92. Stationary Link. 

Q. Would the same effect be produced if the link- 
block was raised and lowered and the height of 
suspension of the link remained the same ? 

A. Valve-motions are made, in which the link is 
not raised and lowered, but the block is ; but in this 
case the convexity of the curvature of the link-slot is 
towards the axle and eccentric, instead of the concav- 
ity being so turned. One of such motions, known 
as the Gooch gear, is outlined in figure 93, with the 
links uncrossed. In B is the centre of the backing 
eccentric ; F that of the forward eccentric ; S being 
the saddle and the point of suspension of the link ; 
P being the block, which is attached to the radius- 
rod PV, that is raised and lowered by the hanger RT, 
which is carried by a bell-crank lever moved by a 
hand-lever in the same way as with the Stephenson 
gear. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



157 



Q. Can the links of the Gooch or stationary- 
link motion be crossed ? 




Fig- 93. Gooch Gear, Open Rods. 



A. Yes ; they are so shown in figure 94 (in which 
the hangers of both the link and the radius-rod are 
omitted) . 




Fig. 94. Gooch Gear, Crossed Rods. 

Q. How about the lead in this stationary-link 
-motion ? 

A. It is constant for all gears ; although the lead- 



158 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

angle increases just as much as with the shifting 
link. 

Q. How about the lead with this motion, if 
the rods are crossed ? 

A. It has constant lead both with crossed and 
with uncrossed rods. 

Q. In the Gooch motion where is the point of 
connection of the suspension-rod which carries the 
link itself, usually placed ? 

A. Back of the curve, towards the axle. 

Q. Is this desirable ? 

A . No ; it causes irregularities in the movement 
of the link so that the sliding-block slips up and 
down in the slot. 

Q. May this trouble be removed? 

A. Partly, by placing the point of suspension of 
the link near the centre of the chord or straight line 
joining the extremities of the slot. 

Q. To what cases is the stationary-link motion,, 
figttre g2, page 156, best adapted? 
A. To those having no rocker. 

Q. Is the stationary link common in American 
practice ? 

A. No : because our engines are built with the 
steam-chests on top of the cylinders instead of on the 
side as in Europe. 

Q. In the Gooch gear, how should the suspen- 
sion of the radius-rod be placed in order to permit 
the least slip of the block in the link-slot ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 159 

A. So that the vertical movement of the point at 
which this suspension-rod is attached to the radius- 
rod, shall be as little as possible ; which will be best 
effected, in practice, by a suspension- rod having a 
radius equal to the length of the radius-rod. 

Q. Are these facts concerning the points and 
manner of suspension of the Gooch link and 
radius-rod correct for crossed rods as well as for 
ope7i ones ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. What must be the length of the radius of 
the slot in the link of the Gooch gear ? 

A. It must equal that of the radius-rod, as 
shown in figure 93. 

Q. What is the objection to the Gooch gear for 
locomotive purposes ? 

A. It requires too great a distance between the 
driving-axle and the cylinder, by reason of the great 
length of radius-rod between the link and the valve- 
rod. 

Q. How long has the Gooch motion been 
known ? 

A. About as long as the Howe or Stephenson 
shifting link. 

Q. Has it met with much favor ? 

A. Yes ; throughout Great Britain and the conti- 
nent of Europe. 

Q. What is the objection to both the Stephen- 
son and the Gooch gears ? 

A. That as the centre of motion of the valve 



l6o locomotive catechism. 

moves farther and farther from the centre of the 
driving-axle, as the Stephenson link or the Gooch 
radius-rod is raised or lowered, the distribution of 
the steam is different in the forward stroke from what 
it is in the return or backward stroke. 

Q. By what style of valve-motion may this 
trouble be got around ? 

\ Bv one having a straight link-slot, and in 
^hich there is a link and a radius-rod, the former 
being raised as the latter is lowered. 

Q. What name is given to such a gear ? 
\ The Allan, or the Trick; both Allan and 
Trick having invented it independently, the former 




Fig. 95. Allan Gear, Open Rods, 
slightly before the latter. It is shown in outline in 
figure 95, with open rods. 

0. Can the Allan link-motion or gear be used 
with crossed rods ? 

A. Yes. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 161 

Q. What is the effect of the position of the 
link upon the lead, with the Allan gear ? 

A. With crossed rods, the lead decreases with 
increase in the grade of expansion ; that is, the 
earlier the cut-off the less the lead. 

Q, Is the variation of the lead greatest in the 
Allan or in the Stephenson gear ? 
A. In the Stephenson. 

Q. What is one peculiar advantage of the 
Allan motion ? 

A. That its parts are more perfectly balanced than 
the Stephenson, and it dispenses with the counter- 
weight or spring peculiar to the latter. 

Q. What is the objection to the Allan gear ? 

A. The great distance required between the steam- 
chest and the driving-axle, by reason of the long 
radius-rod required. 

Q. Can you describe a locomotive valve-gear 
having variable expansion, and r ever sing-motion, 
with but one eccentric ? 

A. Yes; such a one is the Heusinger von Waldegg 
gear, shown in figure 96. There is on the driving- 
axle, the centre of which is represented by O, a 
crank shown by the line OR, and a single eccentric 
the centre of the sheave of which is shown at E, and 
which is set at right angles to and following the 
crank. The eccentric-rod EC takes hold of the 
lower end of the curved link CC, which turns upon 
the fixed pin P, and the convexity of which is turned 
from the driving-axle. In the curved slot in this 
link a sliding-block K has up-and-down motion, 



l62 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



being raised and lowered by a lifting- link, which 
varies trie degree of fore-and-aft motion given the 
block by the oscillation of the link. The radius-rod 
BK extends from this block nearly horizontally 
towards the driving-axle, and its end B is pivoted to 
two levers MS, the upper ends of which are jointed to 
the valve-stem VV, while their lower ends turn in 
bearings S, below the crosshead W. Thus the levers 




Fig. 96. 

MS get at their lower ends S a to-and-fro motion 
from the crosshead W, to a downward projection of 
which they are pivoted ; the point B gets an oscil- 
lating motion from the link, and the upper ends 
M get a peculiar motion which is quite favorable to 
giving the valve a movement which will ensure good 
distribution, favorable expansion, and reversibility of 
engine. 

Q. How about the lead on the Heustnger von 
W aide gg gear f 
A. It is constant at all grades of expansion. 
Q. What is the objection to this gear ? 
A. It is too complicated. 
Q. Is there any other link-motion by which 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



163 



variable expansion and reversibility of engine 
may be got with a single eccentric ? 

A. Yes, the Pius Fink motion, the most simple of 
all. It is shown in outline in figure 97, in which 
the radius-rod is moved up and down by a bell-crank 
lever. O is the driving-axle, OR the crank, and D 
the eccentric, which stands 180 from the crank ; that 

C 




Fig. 97. Fink Gear. 

is, directly opposite it ; the sheave being fastened 
immovably to the link CC. A sustaining-arm GQ is 
pivoted below, at G, at such a point that Q moves 
almost exactly along the line of stroke and the link 
oscillates around this point as the axle turns. NB 
is the radius-rod, connected at B with the valve-stem ; 
and it is raised and lowered in the link-slot by a bell- 
crank lever, fastened to a lifting-link. The dead- 
point in the link is at J ; the direction in which the 
engine runs depends on whether the block is above 
or below J ; and the distance of the block from this 
dead point covers the grade of expansion ; the greater 
the distance the less the expansion, and the later the 
cut-off, and vice versa. 

Q. What must be the radius of the arc of the 
Fink link f 



164 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. It must be equal to the length of the radius- 
rod. 

O. What are the disadvantages of the Fink 
link-motion ? 

A. Unequal steam- distribution, at various points 
of cut-off. 

O. Is it a desirable gear for locomotive use ? 

A. No. 

Q. Might the curved link in the Fink gear be 
replaced by a straight one ? 

A. Yes ; provided the link were lowered when the 
radius-rod was raised, and vice versa, as in the case 
of the Allan gear. 

Q. Is there any way by which the variability of 
lead with the Fink gear may be practically neu- 
tralized, and the cut-off points may be practically 
symmetrical? 

A. Yes ; by the judicious use of compression or 
cushion ; as has been proved with the Porter- Allan 
stationary engine, where only half the link is used 
(reversibility not being necessary) . 

Q. Are link-motions very common, in which 
when the centres of the eccentric are between the 
axle and the link, the rods are crossed f 

A. No ; except with independent cut-off motions. 

Q. What special advantage would there be in ' 
a crossed-rod link-motion ? 

A. That the engine might be stopped with the 
link in mid-gear, which is never possible with the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



165 



ordinary open-link motion ; in which the valve is .of 
necessity open a slight amount at mid-gear. 

Q. - What is the Walschaert link-motion ? 

A. One in which there are two distinct motions, 
one from a single eccentric, and the other from the 
crosshead ; the eccentric usually being like a return- 
crank from the main crank-pin as shown in figure 98, 
with its centre at right angles to the crank-arm. 




Walschaert Gear. 



The link swings from a fixed axis, and its arc has a 
radius equal to the radius-rod link. From the end 
of a short arm and bolted to the crosshead pin, is a 
union bar, pinned to one end of the ' ' combination- 
lever," by the aid of which the eccentric and cross- 
head motions are combined so that the crosshead 
motion gives the angular advance which the eccen- 
tric would not give, and thus enables the valve to 
have constant lead. 

Q. To what classes of engines is the Walschaert 
motion best adapted ? 

A. To those with outside cylinders. 

Q. Suppose that you have two eccentrics of 



166 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

different throws, but the same angular advance, 
and that the valve laps are made so that both will 
have the same lead ; how will the distribution be? 

A. Admission and cut-off will occur at the same 
point of the stroke, but there will be less width of 
port-opening with the small throw. 

Q. Would it be possible to make the ordinary 
slide-valve engine reversible with only a single 
eccentric for each cylinder f 

A. Not without great complication of mechanism. 

Q. To what does a liitk operated by two eccen- 
trics correspond, as a mechanical equivalent f 
A. To one operated by a movable eccentric. 

Q. hi what is it superior to a movable eccen- 
tric f 

A. In that its motion can be accurately adjusted 
so as to do away to a great extent with the irregular- 
ities in cut-off and exhaust closure, 
due to the angularity of the connect- 
ing-rod. 

Q. Is there any other way by 
which the valves could be given slid- 
ing motion from a rotating axle, 
than by eccentrics ? 

A. Yes, cranks may be used, the 
eccentric being in effect a crank the 
pin of which is enlarged so as to in- 
clude the shaft. Thus, ordinarily, 
the crank-pin is smaller than the 
shaft and at some distance from it ; in figure 99, it is 




LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



167 



of the same size ; in figure 100, the pin is larger 
than the shaft, but does not enclose it ; in figure 10 1, 
the pin not only is larger than the shaft but encloses 
it and has become an eccentric. 

Q. What would be the simplest way of getting 
£he motion of the eccentric to the valve ? 
A. By an eccentric-rod direct from the strap. 





this be done in the case of a 



Fig. 100. 

Q. Why cannot 
locomotive f 

A. Because it is necessary to have two eccentrics 
in order to be able to reverse the engine, and to have 
a link in order to be able to vary the throw for the 
purpose of varying the period of admission and 
degree of expansion. 

Q. With the use of two eccentrics and of the 
link-motion, is the valve drive7i directly from the 
link f 

A. No ; there is a rocker-arm for the purpose of 
transferring the motion from the lower plane to the 
"higher one ; also from within the frames to outside. 



i68 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. What other effect has the rocker-arm ttpon 
the motion ? 

A. It reverses it, making it necessary to set tile 
eccentrics differently from what would be the posi- 
tion were there no rocker- arm. 

Q. Suppose that there was a valve without 
steam lap, driven by one eccentric, how would this 
have to be placed on the axle, supposing that no 
lead was used ? 

A. If there was no rocker-arm it should be placed 





Fig. 102. Single 
Eccentric, Lapless 
Valve, no rocker. 



Fig. 103. Two Eccentrics, I<aplc 
Valve, no Rocker. 



with its belly or high part 90 ahead of the crank- 
pin, in the direction in which it was desired that the 
axle should turn ; that is, if there was a single 
eccentric it would be as in figure 102. 

Q. How should the eccentrics be set, where 
there are two of them with shifting link and 
uncrossed rods, driving a lap less valve without 
rocker-arm {110 lead being required} ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



169. 




A. As shown in figure 103, each one being 90 
ahead of the crank- pin in the direction in which the 
engine is to run. (The forward eccentric is marked 

Q. Suppose the case of a single-eccentric 
engine having no rocker-arm, 
driving a valve that had oittside 
lap for the purpose of cutting 
off the steam before stroke end ; 
how woidd the eccentric have to 
be set, if no lead was desired f 

A. As shown in figure 104, in 
which the eccentric is set more 
than 90 ° in advance of the crank- 
pin, in the direction in which the 
axle is to turn, the excess being Fig. 104. One Ec- 
enough to enable the steam edge of centric, Lapped 
the valve to be in line with the Valve ' n ° Rocken 
outside edge of the end port, when the piston was 
at beginning of stroke. 

Q. How should the eccentrics be set where there 
are two driving a lapped valve, with shifting link, 
uncrossed rods and no rocker, and when no lead is 
desired f 

A. As shown in figure 105, where the forward 
eccentric is set ahead of the crank- pin, in the direc- 
tion in which the engine is to run ahead, 90° plus 
an amount enough to bring the valve line-and-line 
for steam admission, at stroke end ; the eccentric 
bellies pointing from the crank. 

Q. How can the amount ahead of the go° post- 



IJO 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



iion, necessary to make the steam edge of the 
valve-lip line with the outside edge of the end 
port, be determined ? 




Fig. 105. Two Eccentrics, Lapped Valve, no Rocker. 

A. In two ways : first, on trie engine itself, by 
turning the eccentric until the valve is in that posi- 
tion ; second, on the drawings ; the angle in excess 
of 90° being the angle which the crank makes with 
the central line of the engine, at the point of cut- 
off. * 

Q. Where there is a rocker-arm and one eccen- 
tric, with a lapless valve, what aboitt the manner 
of 'setting the latter {when no lead is desired} ? 

A. As the rocker-arm reverses the direction of 
motion of the valve with relation to the driving-axle, 
the eccentric should be set, where there is no lap, 
just 90 s back of the crank-pin, counted from the 

* This is fully described and illustrated under the head of Valve 
•Setting. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM 



171 



direction in which it is to run the engine, as shown 



in figure 106. 



Q. Where there is a rocker-arm and a lapless 
valve with two eccentrics, a shifting link and un- 
crossed rods, and no lead is required, how should 
the eccentrics be placed ? 





Fig. 106. One Eccentric, 

Lapless Valve with 

Rocker. 



Fig. 107. Two Eccentrics, 
Lapless Valve with Rocker. 



A. Each should be run back of the crank-pin (in 
the opposite direction from that which it is required 
to run the engine) 90 . (See figure 107, in which 
the forward eccentric is marked u F. n ) 

Q. Where there is a rocker-arm and a lapped 
valve, with one eccentric, and no lead is desired, 
hozv should the eccentric be placed? 

A. Back of the crank-pin (in the opposite direc- 
tion from which the engine is to run) 90", less 
enough turn to bring the valve line-and-line for 
admission at stroke-end ; the eccentric belly being 



172 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

towards the crank. The more lap the more such 
excess. (See figure 108.) 

Q. Where the valve has lap and there are two- 
eccentrics and a rocker-arm, with shifting link 
and uncrossed rods, and no lead is required, what 
should be the eccentric positions ? 





Fig. 108. One Eccentric, Fig. 109. Two Eccentrics, Lapped 
Lapped Valve, with Rocker. Valve, with Rocker. 

A. Each should be back of the crank-pin (in the 
opposite direction to that in which it is intended to 
run the engine) 90 , less enough extra turn to bring 
the valve line-and-line for admission at stroke-end ; 
the eccentric bellies being towards the crank. (See 
figure 109, in which the forward eccentric is marked 
"F.") 

Q. Where lead is desired, what is the rule ? 

A. Turn the eccentric still further ahead of the 
crank-pin, in the direction it is to run the engine, if 
there is no rocker. If there is a rocker, turn it still 
further in the opposite direction to that in which it 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 173 

is to run the engine. (This rule is good for either 
one or two eccentrics.) 

Q. With a lapped valve, suppose the piston is 
at beginning of the stroke, where is the valve f 

A. Its steam edge is either just in line with the 
outer edge of the end port at the end at which the 
piston is, or slightly in advance of it in the direction 
in which both the piston and the valve are to move. 

Q. Where it is slightly in advance of the " line- 
and-line "position, that is, where the port is 
slightly opened before the piston is at stroke-begin- 
ning, what is said of the valve ? 

A. That it has ' ' lead ' ' or " advance. ' ' 

Q. In how many pieces is the eccentric-sheave ? 

A. Sometimes in one, sometimes for convenience 
of repairs, in two. 

Q. How are these parts fastened together ? 
A. Sometimes by bolts or studs, sometimes by 
k:eys and cotters. 

Q. What is the advantage of the latter system ? 
A. There is less trouble in fastening them together 
in such a confined place. 

Q. Where eccentrics are fastened together in 
halves by screws, as in English engines, what is 
done with the recesses at the screw-heads ? 

A. They are filled up with Babbitt metal to keep 
the screws from working out. 

Q. How are the eccentrics fastened on the 
axle f 



174 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. Sometimes by set-screws only ; sometimes by 
a key and key-way, and again without cutting key- 
ways, by two keys having teeth on their under sides 
so that they will grip the axle ; these keys being 
held in place by set-screws. 

Q. What is the objection to a key -way ? 

A. It weakens the axle. 

Q. Are the eccentrics always on the main driv- 
ing-axle ? 

A. No; in small engines they are often on the 
front axle. 

Q. What difference does this usually make in 
the eccentric-rods f 

A. It puts the backing-eccentric rod on the upper 
end of the link, and the forward-eccentric rod on the 
lower end ; and the lifting-shaft will have to be in 
front of the link instead of back of it. The eccen- 
tric-strap is made in two halves, a front, shown in 
figure 91, and to which the eccentric-rod is bolted, 
and a back which is bolted to the front half. 

Q. Is the eccentric-strap always divided in a 
line at right angles to the centre line of the rod f 

A. No ; some builders make the part at an angle 
of 45 or so with the rod. 

Q. What is the advantage of having the part 
at right angles, to the centre line of the rod ? 

A. That there will not be required one pattern 
for the right side and another for the left. 

Q. What is the advantage of having the part 
at more than a right angle to the centre line of 
the strap ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 1,5 

A. Lessening the strain on the bolts and nuts con- 
necting the two parts. 

Q. Why has the eccentric strap two httbs cast 
on it ? 

A. To avoid the necessity of having a right and 
a left-hand pattern. 

Q % Why is one of the three holes by which the 
strap is attached to the eccentric-rod, made oblong? 

A. To allow for first adjustment of the effective 
length of the rod. 

Q. Where the eccentric-rod does not pass into a 
socket in the front half of the strap, how is 
adjustment of its effective length made f 

A. By thin copper strips. 

Q. Where there is no rocker, will the eccentric 
be ahead of the crank, even with it, or back of it ?' 
A. Ahead of it. 

Q. Where is the reverse-lever usually placed,, 
and why ? 

A. On the right side of the cab, because most 
engineers are right-handed. 

Q. How is it held in place f 

A. By a latch, worked by a trigger which lies, 
alongside the handle of the lever ; the latch work- 
ing in notches on the upper side of the quadrant. 

Q. What is the usual arrangement of the 

notches in the reverse-lever quadrant ? 

A. They correspond to such positions of the gear 
as will cut-off the steam at a given number of inches 



176 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 




if 






of piston- stroke ; as 6, 9, 12, etc., or 6, 8, 10, etc. 
Besides these, there is one notch corresponding to 
mid-gear. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



177 



Q. How long should the reverse- 
lever be ? 

A. At least long enough to give the 
engineer a leverage of about four to one 
over the link; that is, that one foot of 
lever motion should move the link not 
more than three inches ; six to one 
would be a better proportion. 

Q. What is the most desirable 
position for the tumbling shaft ? 

A. When it holds the hanger in 
such a way as to guide its vibrations 
in arcs that are practically parallel to 
the central line of motion. Also, it 
must be far enough above or below 
the central line of motion to keep it 
from being struck by the eccentric- 
rods when the gear is moved from one 
gear to another. 

Q. Why not curve the eccentric- 
rods ? 

A. That would produce the desired 
results, but would introduce an ele- 
ment of weakness into the design. 

Q. What point must be noted in 
connection with the hanger ? 

A. It must be of such length that 
the end of the link will not strike the 
tumbling-shaft in either forward or 
backward gear. 

Q. What is the usual propor- 
tion between the tumbling-shaft i^ver and attack- 
and hanger lengths ? 





meuts. 



178 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. The tumbling- shaft arm is usually at least as 
long as the hanger. 

Q. Suppose that the boiler or other part pre- 
vents the tumbling-shaft arm from going far 
enough up to prevent the link being placed in full 
gear back, what will have to be done ? 

A. There are two remedies ; one to put the tumb- 
ling-shaft below the link motion, and the other to 
lengthen the rocker so as to lower the entire motion. 

Q. What will be necessary in the se-cond case ? 

A. To change the relative positions of the rocker- 
arms in order to keep their motions proper. 

Q. Which of these two methods is the better ? 

A. The second, as the greater the rocker-arm 
length the less the vibration of the valve-stem and 
the slip of the link-block. 

Q. Of what material are the rocker-arms 
usually made f 

A. Of wrought iron. 

Q. Why are the holes in the rocker-arms 
usually made tapering? 

A. To enable the pin to be driven out more 
readily. 

Q. How are the frames of the ordinary Ameri- 
can engine made ? 

A. Divided into two parts, a front and a back 
frame, or main frame. The main frames are built 
up of wrought-iron bars, say four inches square in 
cross section, arranged in pairs, one some distance 
above the other on each side, with double connect- 
ing-pieces at each end, so as to form a sort of truss y 
the distance-pieces being the pedestals, between the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



179 





*y> 



J 



i8o LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

jaws of each pair of which comes an axle-box. The 
two sides of each jaw are held from spreading at the 
bottom by a clamp or cross-piece, practically a 
continnation of the lower bar, which, as it is neces- 
sary to slip the axles and boxes in the jaws, cannot 
be solidly continuous. The back leg of the back 
jaw is united to the upper bar by a diagonal brace 
welded to each. In front the upper and lower bars 
of the main frame are brought closer together by the 
upper one being turned down at an angle, so that 
they come together within about four inches. 
Between them is bolted the rear end of the front 
frame-bar, which runs to the front end of the engine, 
and is there bolted to one end of the bumper- timber, 
which extends across the engine ; the cow-catcher or 
pilot being bolted to the front of this bumper-timber. 
In engines having six or eight driving wheels, the 
front frame is formed of both a top and a bottom bar 
or rail. In some cases, as where there are six or 
eight drivers coupled, the lower rail or bar of the 
frame is not forged in one piece with the pedestal- 
jaws but is bolted to their lower ends (as shown in 
figures 113 and 114). 

Q. How are the frames and boiler fastened 
together ? 

A. At the front end they are wedged and bolted 
to the cylinders, which in turn are fastened to the 
smoke-box ; but further than this there are diagonal 
braces, the lower ends of which are bolted to the 
bumper- timber and to the frame, and the upper ends 
of which are bolted to the smoke-box ; and there are 
braces between the boiler-barrel and the frames. At 
the fire-box end the frames pass through expansion- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 181 

clamps bolted to the side of the outer fire-box, so that 
as the boiler expands or contracts by rise or fall 
of temperature, the frames slip lengthwise in these 
clamps. In addition, there are usually diagonal 
braces bolted above to the back end of the outer fire- 
box sheet, at about the height of the crown-sheet, 
their lower ends being bolted to the frames at their 
back ends. Then cross-braces attached to the lower 
bars each side of the engine unite the right and the 
left-hand frames. Still further, the guide-yoke is 
usually bolted both to the frames and the boiler, so 
that these two members are quite fairly bound 
together, although lengthwise expansion and con- 
traction by reason of difference of temperature is 
permitted. 

Q. How much is this sliding of the frames 
through the expansion- clamps in an ordinary 
engine f 

A. About one-fourth of an inch ; sometimes as 
much as five- sixteenths. 

Q. Why not have the frames on each side all 
in one piece the whole length of the engines ? 

A. Because in repairing after a collision it would 
become necessary to take down the whole frame to 
repair only one end. The front being especially 
liable to accident, and the back part of the frame 
being especially difficult to take down by reason of 
the driving-axles, common sense dictates to have the 
two parts separate. 

Q. What is a built-up frame ? 
A. One in which the lower brace is fitted between, 
and bolted to, the pedestals. (Figures 113 and 114.) 



182 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. What is a slab frame ? 

A. One in which the upper frame-brace is reduced 
in width (horizontal thickness) and increased in 
vertical distance or depth, to give more width 
between the frames for the fire-box, the bottom of 
which, however, cannot come below the lower bar. 

0. Should frame-bolts be straight or tapered f 

A. Most builders make them straight ; but if they 
are tapered they will hold the frame together better ; 
this being particularly true if they are long. 

Q. What different forms of pedestal-legs are 
used 9 

A. There is one type that has both jaws tapering 
on the inside, and another and later form that has 
only one tapering, the other being square with the 
frame. 

Q. Where there is one straight and one taper- 
ing leg, to which one is the " long wedge " fitted ? 
A. To the straight one. 













^x 












he 


c 








c 


1 




















A^ 














bS 



Fig. "5- 

Q. What is 
engines f 




Frame for Narrow-gage Engines. 

one difficulty with narrow-gage 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



183 



A. That there is not enough room for the fire-box 
between the frames; and it must be made very 
narrow, unless the frames are made with an off- 
set or cross-plate projecting outside of the wheels as 
shown in figures 115 and 116, in which B B is the 
cross-plate, bolted to the back ends of the arms ; two 




Fig. 116. Frame for Narrow-gage Engines. 

flat bars C C are bolted to it and put far enough 
apart to give between them sufficient room for a fire- 
box as wide as desired. 

Q. What name is given to the distance-piece 
between the top and the bottom bars or rails of 
the front frame, as on engines having six or eight 
drivers coupled ? 

A. The filling-piece. 

Q. What name is often given to the upper bar 
of a bar frame? 
A. The top rail. 

Q. What name is given to the bar or frame 
forming the front part of the frame \ and con- 
nected to the main frame ? 

A. The front rail. 

O. What is the tendency of the connecting-rods 



184 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

on an engine, as regards the smooth running of 
the engine f 

A. To cause pitching and rolling. 

Q. Hoiu is this neutralized in great part ? 

A. By the springs and equalizing-levers. 

Q. How do the equalizing-bars distribute the 
weight of the engine equally on all the drivers ? 

A. Because if there were more weight put on the 
rear end of the engine, back of the rear driving-axle, 
tending to depress only the rear ends of the back 
springs, they would raise the rear ends of the equal- 
izing-bars, put a corresponding extra weight on the 
rear ends of the forward springs, and carry part of 
the extra weight to the front driving-axle. The 
same principle applies to weight put anywhere on 
the engine ; it will be distributed to both or all the 
driving-axles. 

Q. What is the general effect of the system of 
supporting the weight of the back part of the 
engine on equalizing-bars ? 

A. To suspend all that part from two points, thus 
hanging the entire weight of the engine from three 
points, the fulcrums of the equalizing-bars and the 
centre-pin. Three-point suspension is the most 
suitable way that is known, as witness the great 
stability of a three-legged over a four-legged stool. 

O. What forms the front point of stcpport in 
an eight-wheel passenger engine ? 

A. The centre-pin. 

Q. II hat is the front point of support in a 
Mogul? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 185 

A. The fulcrum of that equalizing-bar which 
joins the fiont springs and the pony truck. 

Q. How many points of siipport has a consoli- 
dation engine ? 

A. Five ; the fulcrum of the equalizing-lever con- 
necting the pony truck and the front driving-wheel 
springs being the front one, and the fulcrums of the 
equalizing-levers between the driving-wheels being 
the other four. 

Q. How many points of support has a ten- 
wheel engine ? 

A. Five ; the truck centre-pin in front, and the 
fulcrums of the equalizing-bars between the driving- 
wheels. 

Q. What is the advantage of having Mogul 
engines equalized between the truck and the front 
drivers ? 

A. If the truck goes over a rough part in the 
track, or a pedestal, some of the strain is taken off 
its springs and thrown on the front driving- springs. 

Q. What is to prevent the irregularity of the 
rail-joints y and the effect of the unbalanced weight 
of the connecting-rod, etc., lifting the entire engine 
up in a bouncing manner , thus giving it a chance to 
leave the rails, to say nothing of the injury to 
the parts by the pounding and vibration that 
would thus ensue ? 

A. There are springs between the axle-boxes and 
the frames, so that as the engine rises on one side 
the axle-boxes on that side, and their axles and 



i86 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



as 



wheels, remain in their proper position; and when 
the weight comes down on that side, the springs 
lessen the shock which would 
tend to injure the axle-box, 
axle, wheel, and rail ; to say 
nothing of the substructure 
on abridge. 



Q. What is the tisual 
§ method of connection between 
§> the springs and the axle- 
^ boxes and the frames f 

o 

g A. There are U-shaped sad- 

§ die-pieces which bear on the 

§ tops of the axle-boxes and sur- 

3 round the upper bars of the 

o frames ; these are attached to 

g the centres of the two bottoms 

| of compound leaf springs, 

go running lengthwise of the en- 

| gine and of the frames. From 

end of each of these 

springs there is a hanger, to 

the lower end of which the 

frame is attached, there being 

a spiral spring interposed, at 

the fire-box end. From the 

other end of the spring there 

is a hanger, to the lower end 

of which there is attached one 

end of an equalizing-bar the 

centre of which is bolted to 

the upper frame bar, between 

the driving-axles. Thus most 




< one 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



i*7 



@>^ 




i88 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



50—5 







Wans 



.^ 






N5 



r» 8 bo > kJ >* 

Sgl*.* 



^ 



o v *■ ** *S ^> 






LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 189 

of the weight of the engine (that part borne by 
the driving-axles) is hnng from both ends of each 
spring on each side of the engine ; and the equaliz- 
ing-bar which joins the back end of the front driving- 
axle spring to the front end of the rear driving-axle 
spring, aids in distributing the weight so that neither 
spring gets an excess of weight ; any excess that 
would otherwise go on the rear driving-axle spring 
on either side, being partly carried forward to the 
front driving-axle spring on the same side. 

O. What is the character of the driving-axle 
.springs ? 

A. Each is made up of a series of leaves, of equal 
width but successively decreasing lengths, bound 
together in the centre by a clip so as to act as though 
they were a single bar, slightly curved, and thicker 
in the centre than at the ends. As force is applied 
to the ends of these springs, tending to flatten them 
out, first the inner or longer leaves are flattened a 
trifle and then each of the others takes its share, in 
succession, so that the resistance of the spring is in 
some measure proportioned to the force applied. 

Q. What members of the locomotive have their 
m) eight andmomenhtm taken directly by the track 
without the intervention of the springs f 

A. The axles, wheels, driving-boxes, spring-sad- 
dles and springs, coupling- rods, part of the connect- 
ing-rods and eccentric-rods, and the eccentrics. 

Q. How many driving-axles has the ordinary 
English passenger locomotive ? 

A. One only, having of course but two driving- 
wheels. 



i 9 o LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. How many driving-axles has the ordinary 
standard American passenger locomotive ? 
A. Two, with four driving-wheels. 

Q. What is the advantage of having more 
than one pair of driving-wheels ? 

A. The weight is better distributed on the rails 
and journals; and where the track is liable to be 
imperfect, if there should be imperfect adhesion of 
one pair of wheels, there will be another to help 
along. 

Q. What are the disadvantages of having two 
pairs of driving-wheels f 

A. The rigid wheel-base of the engine is increased, 
and the difficulty and danger of rounding curves, and 
the loss of power in doing so, increased. 

Q. What will tend to make an engine free- 
running ? 

A. Having the driving-axles exactly at right 
angles to the centres of the cylinders and parallel 
with all the other axles. 

Q. What is the effect of not having the driving- 
axle true with respect to the cylinder-axles and 
the other axles ? 

A. A snaky motion, tending to make the engine 
wear more to one side of the track than the other and 
thus wear the flanges on one side more than on the 
other. 

Q. What is the advantage of large driving- 
wheels ? 

A. They enable high speeds to be attained and 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



191 



keep the piston-speed down, thus enabling the steam 
to be properly exhausted. 

Q. What are their disadvantages ? 

A. They set the engine too high ; they are more 
liable to jump the track at high speeds and on 
curves, or by reason of obstructions. 

Q. How are driving-wheels usually constructed 
in this country ? 





■m 

( 



Fig. 128. Wheels, Axle and Tires. 
1. Axle. 2. Eccentrics, j. Wheel-centres. 4. Wrist-pin. 
5. Tires. 

A. They are made with a single-piece iron casting 
as a centre, about which a wrought-iron or steel tire. 



192 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

usually the latter, is shrunk ; the hub and rim, 
(sometimes the spokes also,) being cored out to 
lessen their weight and to give the wheel the advan- 
tage of more ( ' skin ' ' than would be the case with a 
solid casting. 

Q. What other way is there of making driv- 
ing-wheels ? 

A. Of wrought-iron, hydraulically forged in sec- 
tors, which are then hydraulically welded together. 

Q. What is to prevent a broken tire coming off 
the wheel ? 

A. Theie is often a series of bolts holding it to 
the wheel-rim from within the latter; or what is 
better yet, grooves are turned in its flat sides and in 
these are placed the projecting fillets of retaining-rings 
which are bolted to the wheel-rims ; so that if the 
tire should break the parts will be clamped to the 
wheel-centre by these retaining-rings. 

Q, How are the driving-wheels fastened to the 
driving-axles f 

A. Their hubs are bored out a trifle smaller than 
the diameter of the axles in the u fit " and they are 
then pressed on hydraulically, or by a powerful 
screw press. 

Q. What is to prevent the wheels turning on, 
instead of with their axles, by reason of there 
being two connecting-rods acting at points go° 
apart, on two wheels, at opposite aids of the 
same axle ? 

A. Square keys are driven in grooves or key- ways 
in the hubs and axles. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATKCHISM. 



193 



Q. How should driving-wheels be made for 
engines that are to run on roads which are 
to have their gage narrowed f 

A. The wheel-centre should be made wider than 
necessary, and the tire set to conform to the present 
gage ; then when it is desired to narrow the gage the 
tire may be moved further in, and the projection thus 
left on the outside of the wheel-centre turned off. 
This is shown in figure 129. 




W 



ppa- 



Fig. 129. Wheel-centre to Permit Narrowing the Gage. 

Q. What is flange-friction ? 
A. The friction of the flanges against the insides 
of the rails, due partly to slewing. 

Q. How may it be lessened f 

A. By lubrication, as is practiced on some of the 
European railways usually by a block of tallow 
pressed against the flanges, care being taken not to 
let it get on the wheel treads. 



i 9 4 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. In running around a curve, what is the 
tendency of any pair of wheels which do not turn 
with their axle ? 

A. As the outer rail is longer than the inner on 
the curve, and as both wheels must make the same 
number of rotations, either the outer wheel must 
skid on the outer rail, without turning as often as it 
should for the distance passed over, or the inner one 
must slip on the inner rail, making more turns than 
the distance passed over requires, or both. 

Q. Can this be prevented by coning the treads 
of the wheels so that the pair may slide away 
from the outer rail and thus give the outer one a 
larger effective diameter than it had, and the 
inner one a smaller ? 

A. This will only be effective in case the amount 
of taper or cone given the treads is directly propor- 
tionate to the radius of the curve. Each degree of 
curvature requires a different amount of taper ; 
furthermore the action in passing around a curve at 
high speed is to throw the entire machine towards 
the outer rail, which is just in the opposite direction 
to that required to make the coning effective. 

Q. What is the effect where the wheel slips or 
skids without turning enough f 

A. To flatten it in spots. 

Q. What is the effect where a wheel turns 
more than is required for the distance passed 
over ? 

A. To wear both it and the rail unduly ; and as 
the tire is usually softer than the rail it usually gets 
the worst of it. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 195 

Q. Is the influence of cone or taper on the 
wheel treads increased or lessened with the dis- 
tance between axles ? 

A. Diminished. 

Q. What name is given to those parts of the 
axle which bear against the brasses ? 

A. The journals; this being the common name 
for the bearing portion of a rotating piece. 

Q. What character of bearings do these jour- 
nals have f 

A. Usually brasses with semi-circular bearing-sur- 
faces, and held in cast-iron or cast-steel journal-boxes 
which have also, below the axle, an oil-box or cellar, 
held up to the axle by two bolts. These journal- 
boxes slide vertically in the pedestals or horn-pieces, 
so that the entire engine may rise and fall with rapid 
running, without the wheels being raised from the 
track. 

Q. What are the two principal classes of driv- 
ing-brasses used? 

A. Octagonal and cylindrical. 

Q. What are the objections to octagonal 
brasses ? 

A. They are more difficult to fit than the cylin- 
drical ones, and more liable to close on the axle. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of babbitting 
trasses ? 

A. The dust gets into the babbitt and cuts the 
axle ; so that what would be very good practice 
where dust was not liable to get in, would be bad 
usage in this case. 



196 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. Should oil-cellars be straight or tapering f 
A. Tapering, in order to facilitate their removal. 

Q. Are all the driving-wheels always supplied 
with tires ? 

A. No, some builders leave the front pair without 
them. 

Q. What name is given to a driving-wheel tire 
that has no flange? 

A. It is variously called plain, mulay and blind. 

O. In Mogul engines, iu hie h pair of tires is 
made blind ? 

A. The middle pair. 

Q. In ten-wheel engines, with six drivers, 
which zu heels are wit 'hout flanges ? 

A. The front pair ; the four-wheel truck doing 
the guiding at that end. 

Q. In consolidation engines, which drivers are 
plain or blind? 

A. On some roads, only the second pair from the 
front, on others the two middle pairs ; on some 
others, the second and fourth pairs. 

Q. What pair should have flanges and which 
should be blind, on consolidation engines ? 

A. The front and rear pairs should have flanges, 
because the pony truck is not always a safe guide, 
and the rear of the engine should have flanges any 
way ; then the two centre pairs may be left without 
flanges. 

Q. What is the object of having blind or plain 
tires ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 197 

A. To enable an engine with a long rigid wheel- 
base to round sharp curves without undue flange 
friction. 

Q. What is the object of the shoulder on the 
rim of the wheel-centre in some wheels against 
which the tire is pressed f 

A. To prevent the tire from slipping inwards 
when the flange is working against the rail. 

Q. Where 07ily is this desirable, and why f 
A. Where driver-brakes are used, as their frequent 
use tends to expand and hence loosen the tire. 

Q. How thin can a tire be worn with safety 
before it is necessary to remove it ? 

A. Thinner in warm than in cold climates ; thinner 
in summer than in winter ; thinner with light 
engines than with heavy ; say as a minimum one 
and one-fourth inches for light engines in warm 
climates and summer. 

Q. Which is desirable, a thick or a thin tire ? 

A. A thick one, because stronger, and because 
enabling the wheel to run longer without renewal ; 
because also, there is less percentage of material 
thrown away without use, when the tire is removed. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of excessive tire- 
thickness, say over four inches? 

A. It puts on the rails and their joints too heavy 
a weight without the intervention of springs. 

Q. What name is given to the distance between 
axle-centres ? 
A. Spread. 



198 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM- 

Q. What name is given to tkt total distance 
between the centres of the front and back wheels ? 
A. Total wheel-base. 

Q. What name is given to the distance between 
front and back driving-wheel centres ? 
A. Rigid wheel-base. 

Q. What is the effect on the resistance to roll- 
ing, of lessening the distance between truck- 
axles ? 

A. To diminish it up to a certain point. 

Q. What is the advantage of placing the driv- 
ing-axles between the furnace and the smoke- 
box ? 

A. That the overhanging weight of the furnace in 
the rear balances that of the cylinders, smoke-box, 
etc. , in front, thus distributing the engine- weight. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of having over 
nine feet between any two drivers f 

A. It makes a coupling-rod which is too heavy and 
too liable to break. 

Q. In ordinary ten-wheel engines {see figure 
14.8, page 22 1 ,) is the distance greatest between 
the front and the middle pair of driving axles, 
or between the middle and the rear pairs ? 

A. Between the middle and the rear. 

Q. What is the objection to the si x-w heel-con- 
nected engine with an axle back of the fire-box 
<ts is sometimes built f 

A. The overhanging weight of cylinder, smoke- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 199 

box, etc., brings an undue amount of weight on the 
front pair of wheels. 

Q. What is one of the principal objects in 
inclining the cylinders f 

A. To get the leading wheels well forward. 

Q. What is the advantage of getting the driv- 
ing-wheels well back ? 

A. To give the greatest weight where it will cause 
adhesion and to lessen to some extent the tendency 
of the connecting-rod to cause pitching and rolling. 

Q. What is the measure of the wheel-base of 
an engine ? 

A. The distance from the centre of the trailing 
axle to that of the leading axle. 

Q. What measures the rigid wheel-base of an 

engine ? 

A. The length between pin-centres of the parallel 
rod ; or where there are more than one on each side, 
the total lengths of such rods on one side. 

Q. How much weight is it safe, as far as the 
rails are concerned, to put on each axle, with 
rails weighing jo pounds per yard ? 

A. About 8,000 pounds. 

Q. How much is it safe for heavy steel rails, 
to place on each driving-axle f 
A. About 30,000 pounds. 

Q. What enabled the Mogul engine to be 
possible f 

A. The invention of the pony truck, (see figure 



200 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

133, page 203,) which permits the front driving- 
wheels to be placed further forward than on a ten- 
wheel engine with a four-wheel truck one axle of 
which is in front and the other back of the cylinders. 

Q. What may be said of the Mogul engine as 
compared with the ten-wheeler y in tractive 
power ? 

A. It has greater hauling power by reason of hav- 
ing a greater proportion of its weight on the driving- 
wheels. 

Q. What is a truck ? 

A. A frame bearing one or more pairs of non-driv- 
ing wheels and attached to the frame of the engine , 
one end of which it supports, by a vertical centre-pin 
about which it turns. 

Q. What is the use of the truck ? 

A. Partly to guide the engine around curves and 
about switches, and partly to take from the drivers 
some of the excess of weight that would not be good 
for their bearings or for the rail-joints. 

Q. What is the use of two pairs of wheels in 
the front truck of an engine, instead of one ? 

A. In order that one may guide the other, as it is 
more difficult to guide a single pair of front wheels 
when pushed, than a pair that is pulled. 

Q. Where there are two pairs of truck-wheels,, 
where is the centre-pin placed ? 
A. Equidistant from each axle. 

Q. Where there is but one pair of truck- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 2 or 

wheels as in the so-called pony or Bissell truck, 
where is the centre-pin placed f 

A. Back of the axle ; the further back the more 
easily the truck will turn, and the better it will guide 
the engine. 

Q. How is the truck usually made ? 

A. With two axles running in axle-boxes playing 
between jaws (which, however, have no wedges to 
take up lost motion, as have those of the driving- 
axle boxes) attached to the lower side of a rectangu- 
lar frame forged in one piece. On each side there is 




Fig. 130. Four- Wheel Truck (one half). (See legend next page.) 

a leaf spring with its convex side up. On each axle- 
box there rests the ends of a pair of equalizing-levers, 
(one inside and the other outside the frame, on each 
side) and to these the ends of the springs are hung 
by hangers. On the spring-strap the truck-frame 
rests : so that it is supported on two points, and the 
front end of the engine is borne on one point of the 
same frame, at the centre-plate. (See figures 130 
and 131.) 



202 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. How is the centre-plate fastened to the 
truck ? 

A. Sometimes it is bolted to it, and sometimes it 
is hung by swing links permitting it to vibrate cross- 
wise of the track. 




Fig. 131. Four Wheel Truck. 

7. Centre-pin. 2. Swing Bolster. 3. Swing-bolster Cross-tie. 
4. Swing-bolster Li?ik. 5. Truck Frame. 6. Truck Pedestal. 
7. Truck-pedestal Cap. 8. Equalizing-beam. g. Spring Link. 
10. Axle. 11. Wheel. 12. Radius-bar. 13. Radius-bar Brace. 
14. Longitudinal Brace. 13. Spring-staple. 16. Spring-seat. 
17. Safety-strap. 

Q. What keeps the engine from being jolted 
off the centre-pin in case of a very rough track or 
of a derailment ? 

A. A key passing through the pin prevents this. 

Q. How is a two-wheel truck {pony truck or 
Bissell truck) made ? 

A. There is a rectangular frame having below it 
jaws in which the axle-boxes play, as in the four- 
wheeled truck ; bolted to the back of this there is a 
V-shaped frame, the point of which has a centre-pin 
passing into the main frame, and about which the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



203 



truck may swing. There are usually swing-bolsters, 
as on some four-wheel trucks. Sometimes the pony 
truck is equalized with the driving-axles to make 




Fig. 132. Pony Truck. 

safer running on curves at high speeds ; as by hav- 
ing a central equalizing-lever, the front end of which 
bears in an eye in the lower end of the centre-pin, 




Fig. 133. Pony Truck. 

the centre of which is fulcrumed in a horizontal pin 
attached to the main frame, and the rear of which is 
borne by a cross-bar suspended from the front ends of 



204 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



the front driving-axle springs. This rig gives the 
truck a share of any excessive downward thrust or 
weight that is put over the driving-wheels, and 
vice versa. (See figures 132 and 133.) 

Q. What is the advantage of the pony truck 
over one with four wheels f 

A. It lets the front drivers come closer to the cylin- 
ders, thus permitting more drivers to be used, or, 
other things being equal, giving the drivers more 
weight and hence more tractive power for the same 
cylinder-power. 

Q. Of what are truck-wheels tisually made ? 

A. Of cast-iron in a single piece, often in practi- 
cally the same manner as ordinary cast-iron car- 
wheels ; their treads being chilled. Sometimes, cast- 




Figs. 134 and 135. Driving and Truck Journal-boxes. 
/. Box. 2. Cellar. 3. Brass. 4. Cellar-bolt. 

iron centres are used and given wrought-iron or steel 
tires, in the same way as driving-wheels are made ;. 
sometimes again there are two webs or wrought-iron 
plates between the hub and the rim, the space 
between them being filled up with compressed paper. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 205 

Q. What character of bearings and journal- 
boxes have the truck axles ? 

A. About the same as those of the drivers, except 
that they are smaller. 

Q. What keeps the trucks from getting across 
the track in case of derailment ? 

A. Check-chains or safety- chains. 

Q. How is an engine given increased trac- 
tive power in case the rails are wet or frosty ? 

A. By sharp clean sand led by pipes directly in front 
of the drivers, a few inches above the rail ; a lever 
from the cab controlling the supply as desired. 

Q. Where is the sand-box placed ? 

A. Usually on top of the boiler ; but in recent 
^practice one has been put lower down, each side, 
"between the drivers, so that the sand may be nearer 
"where it is wanted and have less chance to stick in 
the pipe in case it gets frozen. (See figure 136.) 

Q. How is the wear of the inside of the 
pedestal-jaws lessened, and horizontal lost motion 
taken up f 

A. By shoes or wedges bolted to the inside jaw- 
faces and which can be adjusted by liners so as to 
.grasp the axle-boxes with just the desired degree of 
tightness. 

Q. What are the resistances which an engine 
has to overcome f 

A. The rolling friction of the train on the track, 
and the sliding friction of its own parts, including 



206 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



the friction of its journals in their bearings, which is 
really sliding friction. 




Fig. 136. Sand-box Work. 

/. Base. 2. Top. 3. Lid. 4. Body. 5. Valve. 6. Lever. 
7. Valve Connecting-rod. 8. Pipe-flange. 

Q. About how many pounds pull should it 
take to move an ordinary train of 500 tons on a 
level track f 

A. From 3,000 to 4,500 pounds, according to the 
wheel-diameter, journal- diameter, character of the 
track, kind and quantity of lubricant supplied > 
etc.; say 3,750 pounds for average conditions. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 207 

Q. How can this force be best measured f 
A. By a traction dynamometer : an instrument ap- 
plied between the motor and the train and by or 
through which it is hauled ; the compression or 
expansion of a spring therein or the amount of pres- 
sure exerted by a piston in a cylinder of oil as regis- 
tered on a gage, showing the force passing through it. 

Q. What is adhesion or traction ? 

A. The tendency of the driving-wheels to cling 
to or u bite " the rail so as to give a good leverage, 
tending to drive the whole engine ahead instead of 
letting the wheels spin around. 

Q. What increases this adhesion or traction f 

A. Weight on the driving-wheels. The greater the 
weight on them the greater the tractive effect, other 
things being equal. 

Q. Why not make all the wheels drivers and thus 
have all the engine-weight utilized in giving trac- 
tion, instead of having one-fourth to one-third of 
it on the trucks ? 

A. Because that would necessarily lengthen the 
rigid wheel-base. While it would do for slow speeds 
on straight roads it would not do at all for curves, by 
reason of the long wheel-base, or for high speeds by 
reason of the greater tendency of large wheels to 
leave the track. 

Q. Cannot a locomotive have too much cylin- 
der-power f 

A. Yes, it may have cylinder-power in excess of 
tractive power, and thus slip its wheels instead of 
driving the whole machine ahead. 



2o8 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. Suppose that we have an engine with 50,000 
j>ounds on the drivers ; how much of this will 
be available for traction ? 

A. That depends on the condition of the rails. If 
they are fairly dry but not sanded, or wet and sanded, 
about 10,000 pounds will be available for traction. 
If they are perfectly dry but unsanded, about 12,500; 
if both dry and sanded, about 17,000 ; if wet or frosty 
(or what engine-runners call u greasy ") only about 
8,300 pounds ; with snow or ice on them, less yet. 

Q. In a two-cylinder locomotive at high speed 
what is the tendency of the heavy end of each con- 
necting-rod as it rotates ? 

A. To raise the entire engine on that side when 
the rod goes up, and to hammer the track as it goes 
down ; one side lifting the engine and the other 
hammering the track, at the same time ; thus also 
causing a ' ' wee-wahing ' ' or swinging of the entire 
engine from side to side of the track. 

Q. How is this counteracted? 

A. It cannot be entirely counteracted on a two- 
cylinder engine ; but the moving weight of the con- 
necting-rod may be partly counterbalanced so as to 
lessen the hammer-blow on the track, while increas- 
ing the tendency to jerk the train back and forth. 

Q. Where are the counterbalance weights 
placed? 

A. In the driving-wheels, opposite each crank-pin. 

Q. How much counterbalance weight should be 
thus placed opposite each crankpin ? 

A. Such a weight as, multiplied by the distance 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 209 

of its centre of gravity from the centre of the axle, 
will equal the weight at the crank-pin multiplied by 
half the stroke of the piston. 

0. Can the lack of balance in the reciprocating 
parts of a locomotive be counteracted by giving 
either lead or compression ? 

A. No ; nothing but weight will remedy it 
even in part ; and the only way by which weight 
may be made to do it effectually is to have for each 
crank-pin another one connected to rods and parts 
of equal weight, going in exactly the opposite direc- 
tion ; so that for every pound that goes up there 
will be another pound coming down at the same 
time and speed ; and for every pound going forward 
there shall be another one coming back at the same 
time and speed. 

Q. Suppose that you have a segment-shaped 
counterweight ; how can its centre of gravity be 
found f 

A. By cutting out a wood or card-board templet of 
even thickness, of the same size and shape as the 
weight, and suspending it from several points in its 
surface, near its rim, by a brad-awl thrust through it 
at right angles to its face ;" dropping plumb-lines 
from this awl in the several positions, and marking 
where they cross the face of the templet. Where two 
of these lines intersect will be the centre of gravity 
of the templet, and should be that of the piece 
which it was made to match. 

Q.- Where there are two segment-shaped coun- 
terweights separated by a spoke, will their com- 
mon centre of gravity be at the same distance 



2 ro LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

from the axle-centre as that of cither one of 
them ? 

A. No ; it will be nearer the axle. 

Q. How can it be determined just how much 
nearer ? 

A. By laying down the segments in full size and 
proper position in a drawing, and connecting the 
two centres of gravity by a chord at right angles to 
the radius or spoke. Where this cuts the centre-line 
of the spoke will be the common centre of gravity of 
the two segments. 

Q. Suppose that there are three segment- 
shaped counterweights of the same size, shape 
and weight, separated by spokes ; how can their 
common centre of gravity be found ? 

A. By laying them down as directed for two seg- 
ments, connecting the centres of gravity of the two out- 
side ones by a chord at right angles to the spoke-radius, 
and stepping off from this chord, towards the centre 
of gravity of the middle weight, one-third the dis- 
tance between the chord and that weight. The 
point thus found will be the common centre of grav- 
ity of the three counterweights. 

Q. Is the counterbalance always of iron ? 
A. No; some builders put in lead counterbalancing 
for heavy engines. 

Q. What means are employed to signal the 
approach or intended starting of a train from 
the train itself ? 

A. The bell (figure 137) and the whistle (figures 
138 and 139). 




211 



Fig. 137. Bell and Frame. 
7. Bell. 2. Frame, j. Yoke. 4. Crank, j. Tongue. S. Acorn, 




Fig. 139. 
Fig. 138. Whistle Work. Chime Whistle. 

1. Lever. 2. Arm or Crank. 3. Shaft. 4. Shaft-bearing* 
5. Link. 



212 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

0. Where is the bell tcsually placed ? 

A. On top of the boiler, in the yoke ; it is rung 
by a rope passing into the cab. 

Q. How is the engineer signalled by the con- 
ductor ? 

A. By a gong bell, and often by an air- whistle ; 
the former being fastened to the cab ceiling and 
struck by means of a cord passing through the train ; 
the whistle being attached to and operated by the air- 
brake system, at the will of the conductor, 

Q. How is the engineer enabled to see ahead of 
the engine, on the track, at night ? 

A. By a head-light of about 40 to 75 candle-power 
placed in front on a bracket' having a parabolic 
mirror by which its rays may be directed in a practi- 
cally parallel beam striking the track in an ellip- 
tical area at some distance ahead of the engine. 

Q. How do the engineer and fireman get out 
to the front of the engi?ie when it is running f 

A. By a running-board on each side of the boiler, 
lengthwise of the machine ; a brass or iron tubular 
hand-railing enabling them to walk more securely in 
case the engine is lurching. 

Q. What is the foot-plat 'e~ or foot-board ? 

A. A heavy iron horizontal plate connecting the 
back ends of the upper frame-bars, and serving as a 
floor for the cab, as a strut between the frames, and 
as a point of attachment for the draw-bar. In addi- 
tion to this it may, by being made purposely of 
extra weight, serve to increase the amount of 
weight on the drivers, where the weight is not prop- 
erly distributed. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 213 

Q. Is this a good policy ? 

A. No, not if there is any way by which more 
weight may be thrown on the drivers and taken off 
the truck, by equalizing-levers. It is bad policy to 
carry any weight that is not doing absolute work, if 
it can be dispensed with. The same thing could be 
much better done by supporting some of the weight 
of the tank or bunkers, by the rear end of the frame. 

Q. How are obstructions such as small ani- 
mals or comparatively light rocks, etc., thrown 
from the track and thus prevented from getting 
under the train and causing either damage to 
the valve-gear, or derailment ? 

A. By a cow-catcher or pilot — a frame having a 
V-shaped base and a V-shaped back, attached to the 
bumper-timber and tending to throw to one side of 
the track any comparatively light object which may 
be thereon. 

Q. How is the engine enabled to push a train, 
without injury to the cow-catcher f 

A. By a pushing-bar hinged to the centre of the 
bumper- timber, in front, and which, when not in use, 
lies along the front edge of the cow-catcher. 

Q. How is light snow removed from the track ? 

A. By brushes or by iron plates (according to its 
depth) attached to the cow-catcher. 

~ Q. What are the wheel-guards ? 

A. Curved splashers of heavy sheet iron, surround- 
ing the upper portions of the driving-wheel rims, to 
prevent the latter from throwing dirt on the 



214 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



or*- '^z^y — 


^ 


_ 





d 


- 


n^ 




^ v 


/ 


i 




^ 




^ \ 


/ d 


1 


- 


^ 




1! 




%^ w N 


/ / 1 


i 






V 3 


E 




^x \ 1 


fj 






% 






x— 


(i 


N 

3 



v^y 




Figs. 140 and 141. Pilot and Front Bumper. 

/. Bumper. 2. Stiffen in g-plate. 3. Pilot-frame. 4. Pilot- 
bars, 5. Pilot Bottom-band. 6. Draw-bar. 7. Draw-bar 
Shoe. 8. Bottom Plate. 9. Pushing-shoe. 10. Pilot-bracket. 
11. Middle Brace. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 215 

Q. Considered in relation to the service for 
which they are intended, what are the classes of 
locomotives ? 

A. Passenger, freight, switching, elevated railway 
and suburban, and mining. 

Q. What character of engine is required for 
passenger traffic f 

A. Comparatively large drivers, giving high 
engine-speed compared with the piston-speed. 

Q. What character of engine is required for 
freight service ? 

A. Comparatively small driving-wheel diameter so 
as to give the crank greater leverage for a given pis- 
ton-stroke. 

Q. What character of engines are required 
for work in large cities f 

A. For hauling freight trains, small drivers and 
great tractive power, and short wheel-base ; while 
there is not much boiler-capacity needed for the slow 
speeds. For passenger service, light engines that do 
not require great boiler-power by reason of their com- 
parative speed. For both, those which make but 
little noise. 

Q. What character of engines are required fo^ 
sitburban business f 

A. Engines that can start heavy trains and run 
them at high speeds ; and usually it is well for them 
to be double-enders or to have valve-gear, etc., 
permitting them to be run equally well in either 
motion. 



2l6 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 




LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 217 

Q. What classes of engine, as regards wheel- 
base, are most used for passenger service f 

A. In America, the eight- wheel (usually known 
as the American) type, having at the back two pairs 
of driving-axles coupled, and in front a four-wheeled 
swivelling truck. 

Q. What is the wheel arrangement in such 
engines ? 

A. Usually with one pair of drivers back of the 
fire-box and the other in front, but in the Wootten 
engine, with wide fire-box, both pairs are under the 
fire-box. 

Q. What is the idea of having the fire-box 
over both pairs of drivers f 

A. In order to get a very wide and long grate. 

Q. What arrangement of engine is desirable 
for local passenger service only f 

A. One type is double-ended ; has four wheels 
coupled, and a pony truck at each end, with saddle 
tank. Another type is also double-ended, but instead 
of having a saddle tank has a back tank ; there 
being a four-wheeled truck under the tank, and a 
pony truck in front. 

Q. What class of engine is suitable for express 
passenger service ? 

A. First of all the American or eight- wheeled 
type, having two pairs of drivers coupled, and a four- 
wheeled truck in front, as in figure 143, then a modi- 
fication of this has also four wheels coupled, but in- 
stead of having a four-wheeled truck in front there is 



218 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



a pony truck there and another in the rear, as shown 
in figure 144. 




Fig. 143. Express Passenger Engine, American Type. 




Express Passenger Engine, with Pony Truck. 



0. For metropolitan and suburban traffic 
what is the most frequently used type of engine f 

A. The regular American eight- wheel ; but there 
are a good many that have the rear pair of drivers 
the main pair, and have a two- wheel or Bissell truck 
in front of the cylinders so as to put more weight on 
the drivers. 

Q. Where are the water and fuel often car- 
ried on engines for city and suburban traffic ? 

A. On an extension of the frames, back of the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



fire-box, and borne by a pony truck. (See figure 
I45-) 




Fig. 145- 



Switching and Local Passenger Service, with Back 
Tank. (Modified Forney Type.) 



O. What name is given to this latter type ? 

A. Forney, from its inventor. 

0. What is the principal type of engine used 
for freight service ? 

A. In this country, trie eight-wheel type is doing 
most of the work in this line too, but where specially 
intended for this traffic they usually have smaller 
drivers than for passenger work. 

Q. For heavier freight service, where a greater 
tractive power is desired than can be had with 
only two pairs of drivers, what arrangement is 
made ? 

A. More drivers are added, as in the Mogul, (fig- 
ure 146, page 220,) in which there are three pairs 
of drivers and a pony or two- wheel truck, the consoli- 
dation, in which there are four pairs of drivers and a 
two-wheel truck, the ten- wheeler, in which there 
are three pairs of drivers and a four-wheel truck, 
the twelve- wheeler, in which there are four pairs of 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



drivers and a four-wheel truck, and the decapod, in 
which there are five pairs of drivers and a two- wheel 
truck. (See figures 146, 147, 148 and 149.) 




Fig. 146. Mogul Freight Engine with Tender. 

Q. What class of engine is best adapted for 
fast freight ? 

A. The ten- wheeler is coming into great favor for 




Fig. 147. Consolidation Engine for Heavy Freight. 

this purpose ; having six wheels coupled and a four- 
wheeled truck, as shown in figure 148, page 221. 

Q. For heavy freight what scent to be the 
best adopted types of engine in this country ? 
A. The consolidation, having eight wheels coupled 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



and a pony truck in front as shown in figure 147, 
page 220, and the decapod, having ten wheels 
coupled and a pony truck, as shown in figure 149. 




Fig. 148. Ten-wheeler for Fast Freight. 

Q. What is the difference as regards the 
wheel-base and weight distribution, between the 
Mogul and the ten-wheeler ? 

A. In the Mogul the front drivers are nearly as 
far from the main "or middle driver as the back 




Fig. 149. "Decapod " for Heavy Freight. 

drivers are ; in the ten- wheeler, by reason of the 

back-truck wheels which are in the rear of the 

cvlinders. the front drivers are quite close to the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



middle pair, and thus get proportionately less of trie 
weight. 

Q. What is the advantage of increasing the 
number of drivers ? 

A. It enables adding to the weight of the engine, 
which gives traction, without putting so much load 
on any one pair of drivers as to wear the rail unneces- 
sarily or to be injurious to rail-joints. 

Q. Is the Mogul engine ever used for passen- 
ger service ? 

A. Yes, but it is usually restricted to freight 
work. 

Q. What is the general make-up of switching- 
engines ? 

A. They usually have two or three pairs of drivers, 
short wheel-base and no truck, if for switching 
only, and seldom have tenders, the fuel and water 




Fig. 150. 



Engine for Switching and Local Service, with Back 
Tank. (Forney Type.) 



being carried on the engine ; if they do, the tenders 
have instead of two trucks, only two pairs of wheels. 
Such an engine with three pairs of drivers may be 
seen in figure 155. 

Q. What class of engines is desirable for both 
switching and local service ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



223 



A. There are several types. One has two pairs of 
drivers coupled, and a back tank, with a four-wheeled 




Fig. 151. Switching Engine, Saddle Tank. 

truck under it ; this being the Forney type. (Figure 
150, page 222.) Another has two pairs of wheels 
coupled, and a pony truck in front, with a four-wheel 
tender, as in figure 153, page 224. A third class is of 




Fig. 152. Switching and Local Passenger Engine. 

the Forney type, that is with a back tank supported on 
its own wheels borne by the engine- frame ; but there 
is only one pair of such wheels, as shown in figure 
145, page 219. A fourth class has four wheels 
coupled, and a back tank, this being a double-ender 
and having a pony truck under the tank and another 
in front, besides two pilots. (Figure 152 . ) A fifth class 
has four wheels coupled, a pony truck in front, and 
a saddle tank, as shown in figure 151. A sixth 



224 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



type, which is for very heavy switching, has six 
wheels coupled, a saddle tank, and no truck. 




Switching-engine, with Four Wheeled Tender. 



Q. What class of engine is suitable for heavy 
switching and local freight f 

A. The double-ended saddle-tank engine having 
six wheels coupled and a pony truck in the rear, as 
last mentioned, as used for light switching, etc.; or a 




Fig. 154. Heavy Switching and Local Freight Engine, wdth Saddle 
Tank and Back Tank. 

double-ended engine with back tank borne on a four- 
wheel truck, and having six wheels coupled. A 
third class is a double-ender, with both a saddle tank 
and a back tender, the latter being borne by a four- 
wheel truck, there being six wheels coupled. (See 
figure 154.) 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



225 



Q. Why are all the wheels of switching- 
engines, drivers ? 

A. In order to utilize for tractive purposes every 
pound of weight of the engine. 

Q. Why are the fuel and water borne by the 



engine ? 



A. To increase traction for a given amount of 
dead weight ; also because it shortens the train. 




Fig. I 55- Heavy Switching Engine, Six Wheels Coupled, with 

Tender. 

Q. What may be said of the wheel-bases of 
switching-engines f 

A. They are usually very short to enable the 
engines to pass over curves and sharp switch- angles. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of having short 
wheel-base ? 

A. The pitching or see- saw motion which it gives 
the engines. 

Q. How may this be remedied ? 

A. By a single pair of truck- wheels at one end. 



22 6 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What class of engines are needed for min- 
ing purposes ? 

A. Very low, with, excessively short stacks ; and 
with water supply borne by tanks saddling the boiler 
or otherwise borne by the engine itself; the fuel also 
being carried thereon. 

Q. What is one advantage of the six-wheel 
outside-connected type of engine, especially for 
mine work, or where there is much tunneling 
and bridging ? 

A. That by reason of its greater length, the boiler- 
diameter may be reduced for a given weight of 
engine and size of cylinders, as compared with four- 
wheel-connected engines of the same power; thus 
enabling the reduction of the height and width with- 
out reducing power. 

Q. Where are the fuel and water usually 
carried f 

A, In a tender ; a separate vehicle having its own 
trucks but always run just back of the engine, to 
which it is attached by a coupling and by safety 
chains. Most commonly the water-tank is of U-shape 
with the opening towards the cab, and the coal in 
the space between ; sometimes also on top of the 
tank, a flaring edge preventing its falling off in case 
it is piled up. 

Q. What is the usual way of filling the tender- 
tank ? 

A. By hose from a pipe or tank at the watering- 
stations ; the tender-tank having a man-hole or fill- 
ing-hole into which the free end of the hose is put. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 227 

Q. By what means can a tender-tank be filled 
with water without necessitating stoppage of the 
train f 

A. By having a trough in the centre of the track 
for a mile or so, and a scoop- tube which is let down 
from the tender after it has got over the tank, and with- 
drawn before the other end of the trough is reached. 
The velocity of the train causes the water to be 
forced up the scoop-tube into the tender. 

Q. How does the water reach the engine from 
the tender ? 

A. There is between the two a flexible hose usually 
attached to a sink or cistern in the bottom of the 
tank, which lessens the probability of air being 
sucked into it when the water is nearly all drawn 
out ; the opening to this sink or cistern being con- 
trolled by a disk valve working in a strainer- cham- 
ber, which prevents the passage of trash that might 
clog the pump- valves. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of having a 
tank on the boiler ? 

A. It is inconvenient and unsightly ; it has not 
room enough for much water; the driving-wheels 
may have too much load on them when the tank is 
full, and then when there comes need for plenty of 
traction, the tank may be empty and the useful load 
not be there. 

Q. How are the tender-trucks made ? 

A. About like the engine-trucks except that the 
journal bearings and frames are outside the wheels 
instead of inside, in order to give greater facilities 
for oiling, or for renewal of the bearings. 



228 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



0. Hozv are the tender-axle boxes made ? 

A. About like car- axle boxes, trie journal being in 
a cast-iron box open front and rear and having a 
cover. (Figure 156.) 




'/////////////////////////////A 

Fig. 156. Tender Journal-box. 
/. Box. 2. Wedge. 3. Brass. 4. Lid. 5. Axle. 

Q. What keeps the oil from leaking out of 
the box, past the journal, and dust from get- 
ting in ? 

A. A wood or leather packing-piece or dust-guard. 

O. How is the tender usually borne by its 
trucks ? 

A. On two points at the back axle, and on a cen- 
tre-pin at the front axle, thus giving a three-point 
bearing. 

Q. What keeps the tender-trucks from getting 
crosswise of the track in case of derailment ? 

A. Safety-chains or check-chains, as with the 
engine-truck. 

Q. How may the speed of an engine or train 
be suddejily checked ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



229 




Fig. 157. Steam Brake Work. 

/. Cylinder. 2- Piston-rod. 3. Cylinder-head. 4. Cylinder 
Stuffing-box Nut. 5. Hangers. 6. Links. 7. Heads. S. Shoes, 
g. Shaft. 10. Shaft- support. 11. Upper Arm-rod. 12. Lower 
Arm-rod. 



230 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. By shutting off steam and by the application of 
brake-shoes to the wheel-treads. 

Q. How do the brakes lessen the train speed? 

A. By increasing the friction so that the momentum 
of the train is usually taken up in overcoming this 
excess of friction ; just as in a similar case the speed 
would be checked by the application of the brakes 
even although the engine continued hauling. 

Q. What is the effect of too sudden a7td hard 
application of the brakes f 

A. The wheels are prevented from turning at all, 
and then skid or slide along the track, causing wear 
of both rails and wheel-treads, especially the latter. 

Q, In case of proper application of the brakes, 
what should receive the wear f 

A. The wheel-treads get some of it, but these 
last being of steel or chilled iron, the brake-shoes 
should get most of it ; which is right, as they are 
the cheaper to renew, and outside of the question of 
cost their wear is of less consequence, 

Q. Are the brake-shoes always applied to the 
wheel-treads ? 

A. Usually ; but experiments have been made to 
apply them to iron drums borne on the axles, and 
the wear of which would be of less consequence than 
that of the wheel-treads. . 

Q. What would be the proper place to apply 
the brakes ? 

A. To the rails, thus making friction between the 
train as the moving member of a pair, and the track 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 231 

as the stationary member, and doing away with the 
possibility of flatting the wheels.* 

Q. What is the principal difficulty in this ? 

A. The uneven character of the rails, particularly 
at the joints. 

Q. What is the disadvantage of hand brakes ? 

A. Their application is slow, even after once 
commenced ; the pressure obtainable is not so power- 
ful ; time is lost when commencing to apply them ; 
a system of such brakes cannot be automatic, that 
is, will not brake the train in case it parts ; nor can 
they be made continuous throughout the train. 

Q. What are the principal classes of power 
brakes ? 

A. Those operating by compressed air, and those 
operating by vacuum. 

Q. Into what two classes are compressed-air 
brakes divided? 

A. Into those using straight air, and automatic. 

Q. What is a straight-air brake ? 

A. One in which the brakes are applied by pres- 
sure from a cylinder and piston under each car, the 
motive fluid being compressed air in a cylinder under 
the engine or tender, and having a valve controlling 
the flow of air to the train-pipe. 

Q. What are the disadvantages of this class of 

brake ? ' 

* This was first suggested to the writer by the late John C. 
Trautwine, in his time, the most eminent of American civil engi- 
neers, and has received the endorsement of many prominent in 
practical matters. ..... 



232 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. In a long train it takes too much time for the 
air to flow from the engine or tender reservoir to the 
rear cars ; and in case the train parts, only the front 
portion, which least needs control, may be checked 
by the brake ; the rear part being left free, which 
might lead to danger as on an np grade, where there 
would be nothing to prevent its running down. 

O. How does the automatic brake work ? 

A. There is a compressed-air reservoir on the 
engine or tender, and a cylinder and piston under 
each car in the train, operating the brake-levers as 
with the straight- air brake ; but there is a separate or 
auxiliary reservoir on the engine or tender. The 
air-pump discharges into the main reservoir ; in con- 
nection with this is the engineer's brake- valve, with 
which is connected the brake-pipe, which with its 
continuations, extends back under the train, com- 
municating with the auxiliary reservoirs. Other pipes 
communicate with the auxiliary reservoirs by the 
" triple- valves." In charging the brakes the main 
reservoir is filled with compressed air ; then the engi- 
neer's valve is opened to let air through the brake- 
pipe and triple- valves and into the auxiliary reservoirs. 
The triple-valves close communication between the 
auxiliary reservoirs and the brake- cylinders, as long as 
there is pressure in the brake-pipe ; but when this 
pressure is lowered, as by the breakage of the train, 
or purposely done by the engineer, they open and 
let air from the auxiliary cylinders to the brake-cyl- 
inders, thus applying the brakes. The engineer's 
valve permits letting air out of the brake-pipe at 
will, and thus applying the brakes when desired. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 233 

Q. How can the automatic brakes be taken off 
after they have been applied ? 

A. By so turning the engineer's valve as to close 
the opening by which air may escape from the brake- 
pipe, and let air flow from the main reservoir to the 
brake-pipe, this latter closing the triple- valves, let- 
ting the air out of the cylinders, and releasing the 
brakes, which are forced from the wheels by springs. 

Q. When is it desirable to use the automatic 
brake with straight air ? 
A. Where the system leaks. 

Q. Can a continuous brake system work with 
some of the cars straight-air and the rest auto- 
matic ? 

A. No ; it must be either one thing or the other. 

Q. How can the brake on any one car be 
thrown out of service without affecting those on 
cars before and back of it ? 

A. By the four- way cock, which closes communi- 
cation between the brake-cylinder and the auxiliary 
reservoir on that car ; leaving the main brake-pipe 
unobstructed. 

Q. What other 7ise has the four-way cock ? 

A. To enable the automatic brakes to be used 
with straight air ; its handle being turned into 
another position than that required to throw the 
brakes out of service, and leave a communication 
from the main brake-pipe to the brake-cylinder, so 
that the brakes may be applied by letting air into the 
main brake-pipe and not having any in it when the 
brakes are to be off. 



234 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. Where is the air-pump for working the 
air-brake placed ? 

A. On the right side of the fire-box, or on the 
right side of the boiler a little in advance of the 
fire-box. 

0. What are the essential parts of the West- 
inghotise quick-action automatic brake ? 

A. A pumping apparatus to furnish compressed air ; 
a main reservoir for storage of compressed air ; the 
engine-runner's brake and equalizing discharge valve, 
to regulate the flow of air from the main reservoir 
into the brake-pipe for releasing the brakes, and 
from the main train or brake-pipe to the air for 
applying them ; the main train-pipe or brake-pipe 
running from the main reservoir to the engine- 
runner's brake and equalizing discharge- valve and 
along under the train, supplying air to the appa- 
ratus under each car ; the auxiliary reservoir, on 
each car, taking a supply of air from the main reser- 
voir, through the brake-pipe, and storing it ; the 
brake-cylinder on each car, having a piston-rod so 
attached to the' brake-lever that when its piston is 
forced out by air pressure the brakes are put on ; the 
quick-action automatic triple valve, connected to the 
main train-pipe, to the auxiliary reservoir, and the 
brake-cylinder, and operated by the variation cf 
pressure in the brake-pipe ; the couplings with their 
flexible hose, between cars, connecting the sections 
of the train-pipe ; the duplex air gage, showing the 
pressure in the main reservoir and that in the train- 
pipe ; and the pump governor, regulating the supply 
of steam to the pump, so that when there is suffi- 
cient air pressure in the train brake-pipe and in the 
reservoirs, the pump shall stop working. 



m 



WESTINGHOUSE IMPROVED ENGINEERS BRAKE AND EQUALIZING DISCHARGE VALVE 

With Feed Valve Attachment. 1892 Model. 

Plate IV. 




LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 235 

Q. Describe the valve-motion of the g 1-2 inch 
improved air pump of the Westinghouse auto* 
ma tic brake ? 

A. The valve motion consists of two pistons 
(see 77 and 79, figure 1, plate III,) of unequal 
diameter, mounted on a rod 76 and having be- 
tween them a D valve 83, to distribute steam to 
the upper or to the lower side of the main steam 
piston 65, as required. Steam enters the pump at X 
(where a stud and nut admit of the direct attach- 
ment of the pump-governor) and by passages a and 
a 1 and port a 2 is admitted to the slide-valve chamber 
between the two pistons yy and 79. As the piston 
77 is larger than 79, the action is to force the two to 
the right as shown in figure 1 , thus letting steam 
under the main piston 65 through the port b to the 
passages b l and d 2 , forcing the main piston upwards; 
the steam that has forced the main piston downward 
being exhausted to the atmosphere through the 
passage c, port c\ and cavity B to the slide-valve 83, 
port d and passages d x and d 2 at the connection Y, 
whence it is taken by a suitable pipe to the smoke- 
box. 

O. What is the arrangement of the main-valve 
b u sJi ing of th is p u mp ? 

A. This is shown in figure 3, port /communicat- 
ing between the chamber E in the main- valve head 85 
and exhaust-passage f l t and hence being in constant 
communication with the atmosphere taking the pres- 
sure off that surface of the main- valve piston 79, 
which is exposed to the chamber E. The revers- 
ing- valve 72 works in the chamber C in the centre 



236 . LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

of the steam-cylinder head, taking steam from the 
slide-valve chamber A through the ports c and e 1 ; 
this valve being moved by a rod 71 extending into 
the space K of the hollow piston-rod. This valve is 
to admit steam to and exhaust it from the space D 
between the main valve piston 77 and the head 84. 
It is shown in figure 1 in position to exhaust 
the steam before used, from the space D through the 
port h (figures 2 and 3), port k\ reversing valve- 
cavity H and portsy and f 1 to the main exhaust-ports 
d, d l \ndd\ 

O. What is the effect when the main piston 
approaching the upward termination of its 
stroke, strikes the shoulder f of the revcrsing- 
valve rod 7/, and forces this rod and its valve J2 
upwards ? 

A. Steam is let in from chamber C to chamber D 
through the ports gaisdg* (figure 3), thus balanc- 
ing the pressure on both sides of the main- valve pis- 
ton 77, when the steam in chamber A acting on the 
effective area presented to it, of the main- valve pis- 
ton 79, forces it to the left, and lets live steam to the 
upper side of the main steam-piston 65, exhausting 
from the piston side, and forcing it downward until 
at the lower end of its stroke the button head on the 
lower end of the reversing- valve stem 71 comes in 
contact with the reversing- valve plate 69, again mov- 
ing the re versing- valve 72 to the position shown in 
figure 2, thus completing a full double stroke. 

O. What happe?is in the air-cylinder as the 

steam and air-pistons arc making their strokes ? 

A. Air from outside is drawn into first one end 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 237 

and then the other of the air-cylinder 63, through 
^he screened inlet 106 at IV, chamber /\ and the 
receiving- valves 86 to the left (figure 1), and 
thence discharged under pressure through the dis- 
charge-valves 86 to the right (figure 1), to the 
chamber G and the main reservoir to which the 
pump should be connected by a 1 1-4 inch pipe at Z. 

Q. What about the use of oil with this pump 
{and with the eight-inch pump) ? 

A. Only a moderate quantity of oil should be used 
in the steam and air-cylinder. 

Q. How is drainage effected? 

A. By the cocks 105, in the steam-passages 
a and b 2 . 

Q % Describe the new Westinghouse engineer s 
brake and equalizing discharge-valve {three-way 
cock) with feed-valve attachments f 

A. As shown in figures 4, 5 and 6, plate IV, 
the valve is so arranged that when the handle 
is in " running position " the pressure in the train- 
pipe is cut-off automatically at 70 pounds, no matter 
what higher pressure there is in the main reservoir ; 
and any loss in the train-pipe, from leakage, is auto- 
matically supplied. The amount of excess pressure 
to be carried in the main reservoir to permit the re- 
charging and releasing promptly, is regulated by the 
pump-governor, which will stop the pump when the 
maximum pressure is reached. The pump-governor 
does not control the train-pipe pressure. It is not 
necessary to have in the main reservoir the excess of 
20 pounds or more, before air can be supplied to the 
train-pipe to make up for leakages when the handle 



238 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

of the valve is in running position. All that the 
pump- governor does is to regulate the degree of 
excess pressure in the main reservoir ; the amount of 
this excess being regulated by the governor-spring. 

Q. What is the distribution of the air when 
the handle is in position i, " for Releasi?ig 
Brakes " f 

A. Air from the main reservoir enters the brake- 
valve at X, passing through the port A, A, through 
the port a in the rotary valve 43 to the port b in its 
seat 33, thence upward into the cavity c of the rotary 
valve, and finally to the ports / and l l and the train- 
pipe at Y. The ports j in the rotary valve and e 
in its seat are not reduced in this position, and let 
air to the chamber D above, equalizing the piston 
47 and passing thence through the ports s and s, 
charging the small equalizing reservoir connected 
at T. 

Q. When the train pipe and the auxiliary 
reservoirs of the brake apparatus are charged^ 
what is done ? 

A. The handle 38 of the brake- valve is moved to 
2, "position while running," in which position the 
ports a and b, and j and e are no longer in communi- 
cation, and air then reaches the train-pipe through 
the port j in the rotary valve 43 , and the ports f f 1 
in its seat 33, passing thence through the feed- valve 
63 to the port i, ports / and I 1 , to the train-pipe, 
and continuing to flow thereto until the pressure in 
the chamber B on the diaphragm 72 exceeds the resis- 
tance of the spring 68, and, forcing the diaphragm 72 
and its attachments downward, the feed- valve 63 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 239 

closes until such time as by reason of any leaks in 
the train-pipe the pressure therein has been reduced 
below 70 pounds, when the valve 61 is again auto- 
matically pushed open by the diaphragm rising, 
replenishing the train-pipe pressure. The equalizing 
port cr is now in communication with the chamber/}, 
maintaining the train-pipe pressure therein, through 
the ports / and /, to the cavity c in the rotary valve 

43- 

Q. Hozu is the adjustment of the spring 68 
accomplished ? 

A. By the adjusting-nut 70, to which access is 
had by the removal of the cap check-nut 71. 

Q. How are the brakes applied ? 

A. The handle 38 of the valve is moved to posi- 
tion 4, "Application of Break Service Stop," bring- 
ing into conjunction the port p (a groove in the 
under side of the rotary valve 43) and the ports e 
and h (the latter also a groove) in its seat, causing 
air to any desired extent to be discharged to the 
atmosphere from the chamber D above the piston 47 
and the equalizing-reservoir, through the large 
direct-application and exhaust-port k, thus reducing 
the pressure above the piston 47 and causing that in 
the train-pipe below to force it upwards from its seat, 
letting air flow from the train-pipe through the ports 
m, 11 and n x to the atmosphere, through the exhaust- 
connection 51. When the desired reduction of pres- 
sure in the chamber D is made, the valve-handle is 
moved backward to position 3, "on lap;" air still 
continuing to flow from the exhaust fitting 51 until 



240 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

the pressure in the train-pipe has been reduced to an 
amount about equal to that in chamber D. 

O. Hozv much reduction of pressure from 
chamber D should be enough to apply the brakes 
slightly ? 

A . About six to eight pounds ; piston 47 rising 
slightly and then being forced to its seat automati- 
cally by the excess of pressure on its upper surface 
from the air remaining in chamber D. 

Q. How are the brakes released f 

A. By moving the valve-handle 38 to u Position 
for Releasing Brake," causing air from the main 
reservoir to flow freely again to the train-pipe, forcing 
the triple valve to " released" position and exhaust- 
ing the air used in applying the brakes, and re- 
charging the auxiliary reservoirs. When the valve- 
handle is in this position, a small " warning port " 
discharges air from the main reservoir to the outer 
air with considerable noise, thus attracting the atten- 
tion of the engine-runner to his neglect to move the 
valve-handle to the " running" position. 

Q. When must the engine-runner move the 
brake-valve handle from position 1 to position 2 ? 

A. Before the accumulation of the maximum pres- 
sure of 70 pounds allowed in the train-pipe, so that 
the feed- valve attachment may properly do its duty 
of governing the train-pipe pressure ; else the pres- 
sure in the train-pipe may be rendered excessive. 

Q. How are the brakes put on for an emer- 
gency application f 




Plate V. Engine No. 999- N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R., Drawing the Fastest 

& .6 p RIN CIPAL DIMENSIONS 

,o in. x 1,4 in. Driving Wheels. 8 in. Diameter of Boiler, S S in. Total heating surface. i,03°-37 «!■ ft - 



Train in the World (July, 1893). Designed by Mr. Wo. Buchanan, M. M. 



Weight, working order, 124,000 lbs. Weight 



■ Pressure. 190 lbs. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 241 

A. The brake- valve handle 38 is moved to trie 
extreme right (position 5, " Application of Brake, 
Emergency Stop"), when the direct- application and 
exhaust-port k and the direct-application and sup- 
ply-pipe / may be brought together by a large cavity 
^ in the under surface of the rotary valve 43, thus 
discharging from the train-pipe to the atmosphere a 
large volume of air, and putting the brakes on very 
quickly. 

Q. Hozv much should the train-pipe pressure 
be reduced for an emergency stop ? 

A. Twenty to twenty- five pounds only. 

Q. What are the functions of the quick-action 
automatic triple-valve ? 

A. To let air from the auxiliary reservoir (and 
under certain conditions from the train-pipe) to the 
brake-cylinder, thus putting on the brakes and cut- 
ting off connection between the brake-pipe to the 
auxiliary reservoir, and restoring the supply from the 
train-pipe to the auxiliary, while permitting the 
escape of the air from the brake- cylinder and releas- 
ing the brakes. 

Q. What are the principal parts of the triple- 
valve ? 

A. The piston and the slide-valve. 

Q. What is the effect on the triple-valve of a 
moderate reduction of air pressure in the train- 
pipe ? 

A. To force the triple- valve piston and its slide- 
valve to such position as to let the air in the auxil- 



242 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

iary reservoir pass directly into the brake- cylinders 
and apply the brakes. 

Q. What is the effect of a sudden reduction 
of air pressure in the train-pipe, as by the part- 
ing of the tram ? 

A. The same as is effected by a moderate reduc- 
tion, besides opening supplemental valves in the 
triple valve, and letting the compressed air in the 
train-pipe enter the brake-cylinder, so as to increase 
the pressure on the brakes about 20 per cent. 

Q. What is the effect of restoring to the 
brake-pipe an excess of pressure over that remain- 
ing in the auxiliary reservoir f 

A. To force the piston and the slide-valve of the 
triple valve to their normal position, making connec- 
tion between the train-pipe and the auxiliary reser- 
voir, and letting the air in the brake-cylinder escape 
into the atmosphere, thus letting off the brakes. 

Q. What is the essential feature of the azito- 
matic brake f 

A. That any reduction of pressure in the train- 
pipes sets the brakes. 

Q. What prevents the brakes being set when 
the cai r s are ttncoipled ? 

A. There is on each end of the train-pipe an 
angle valve, which is closed before uncoupling. 

Q. How can any particular car be cut out 
from the braking action f 

A. By a stop-cock in the branch-pipe from the 
main train-pipe to the quick-action triple valve. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 243 

Q. How is the engine-runner s brake-valve cut 
out from any but the leading engine , when there 
are two or more engines coupled in the same 
train ? 

A. By stop-cock in the main train-pipe near the 
engine- runner's brake- valve. 

Q. Can the Westinghouse u quick-action" auto~ 
matic brake be used in connection with the plain 
automatic form ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Can it be used as a non-automatic or 
" straight air" brake f 
A. No. 

Q. What should be done in making up trains \ 
as regards the couplings and connections ? 

A. All couplings should be united so that the 
brake system extends to every car in the train unless 
the brake is defective on one or more, in which case 
only this should be left out. All cocks in the main 
train-pipe should be opened except that on the rear 
of the last car, which should be closed. All cut-off 
cocks in the branch-pipes between the main train- 
pipe and the triple valves should be opened (except 
in the case of cars with disabled brakes) . 

Q. What should be done in the matter of 
couplings in detaching engines or cars ? 

A. The main train-pipe should be closed at the 
point of separation, to prevent setting the brakes, 
and then the couplings should be parted by hand. 

Q. Stppose that the brakes are set zvJicn tlie 



244 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

engine is not attached to the car, how may they 
be released ? 

A. On passenger cars, by opening the release-cock 
in the bottom of the auxiliary reservoir ; on freight 
cars, by opening the release- valve in the top of the 
auxiliary reservoir. 

Q. What are the limits of travel of the brake- 
cylinder pistons ? 

A. They should not travel more than eight inches 
nor less than four. 

Q. Of what is a greater travel than eight 
indies a sign ? 

A. Of weak brake-gear or worn shoes. 

Q. How can the brakes be thrown out of use on 
a7ty particular car ? 

A. By closing the cut-out cock. 

Q. How can the plain automatic triple-valve 
that is used for the locomotive driver and tender- 
brake be rendered inoperative? 

A. By turning the handle of the four- way cock 
downward to a point midway between a horizontal 
and a vertical position, or until a lug on the handle 
prevents further movement. 

O. How may the automatic brake be rendered 
inoperative? 

A. By turning this handle to a horizontal position. 
O. How may triple-valves be drained ? 
A. By unscrewing the plug in the lower case. 
Q. How may leaks in the joints of the air- 
pipes and fittings be discovered ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 245 

A. By applying soap-suds, which will show bub- 
bles where there is a leak. 

Q. What class of oil should be used in the air- 
cylinder of the pumping apparatus ? 

A. 32° gravity West Virginia well oil. 

Q. What classes of lubricant should not be 
used in the air-cylinder of the pumping appa- 
ratus ? 

A. Tallow, lard or kerosene. 

Q. When the brakes are applied either by the 
train men or automatically , should the engine- 
runner aid in stopping the train by the brake- 
valve, as in making ordinary stoppages ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. How much travel should the pistons of 
driving-wheel brakes have f 

A. From three to five inches. 

Q. What will be the effect of coupling together 
cars which have different air-pressures in their 
brake apparatus ? 

A. The brakes will be set on those having the 
highest pressure in the auxiliary reservoir. 

Q. How may you insure the certain release of 
all the brakes in the train and that the reservoirs 
will be quickly charged ? 

A. By carrying the maximum pressure in the 
main reservoir before connecting to a train. 

Q. How is the train-speed best control led on 



246 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

long down grades, while maintaining a good 
working pre s stir e ? 

A. On ordinary grades it is best done by running 
the pnmp at a good speed so that a comparatively 
high pressure will have been accumulated in the 
main reservoir while the brakes are on, which will, 
when released, enable the auxiliary 7 reservoirs to be 
recharged before the speed has increased to any con- 
siderable extent. 

Q. Should the engine be reversed when the 
brakes are applied ? 
A. No. 

Q. How should the brake-pump be started f 
A. Comparatively slowly. 

Q. Is it right to attempt to stop a train of 50 
or 60 cars with only six or eight braked ? 
A. No. 

Q. Should the emergency brake be used except 
in a case of absolute emergency ? 

A. No ; it is unpleasant to passengers and does 
not do the rolling stock any good. 

Q. How about the number of applications of 
the brake in stopping at a station ? 

A. It should be done with one if possible; cer- 
tainly with not more than two. 

Q. Should the train-pipe pressure be exhausted 
to zero in putting on the brakes ? 

A. No ; it is just a waste of air. They cannot be 
put on any harder than full on, and pressures are 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 247 

calculated so that they will be full on long before the 
train- pipe is fully exhausted. 

Q. How about testing and inspecting brakes on 
leaving a terminal station f 

A. They should be tried then, so as to be sure 
that they are in perfect condition and that they will 
work on the first regular stop or on the first emer- 
gency. 

Q. What is the effect of not taking ^lp the 
slack in the brake-gear f 

A. It takes more time to stop. 

Q. What should be done with the brake-hose 
-when it is uncoupled ? 

A. It should be hung up in the "dummy" so as 
to keep cinders and things out of it. 

Q. What is the vacuum brake f 

A. One in which instead of operating the brake- 
cylinders by compressed air they are applied by re- 
moving the pressure from one side of a piston or 
diaphragm. In the Eames brake, such as is 
used on the New York elevated railways, there is a 
simple steam-jet ejector which exhausts the air from 
the train-pipe and the brake-cylinders, giving much 
more rapid control than is possible by the straight- 
air . or the automatic system, as there would not be 
time to pump up between stations or stops, with the 
stations so close together and the trains running on 
such a short headway. 

Q. How are the locomotive and tender braked? 

A. There are brake-shoes which bear against their 

wheels and which press against them by crosswise 



248 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

brake-beams bung from tbe frame by brake-bangers , 
and baving attached to tbeir centres by pivoted fill- 
crums, brake-levers operated by compressed air cyl- 
inders, or sometimes, in tbe case of tbe tender, by 
hand- wheels. (See figure 157.) 

Q. What is the effect of driver-brakes on the 
driving-boxes f 

A. If improperly constructed and used, they will 
do them harm ; but if properly designed, made and 
used, and the wedges are kept up, there should be 
no trouble. 

Q. Should the driver-brake be used as an 
emergency brake only ? 

A. No ; for two reasons : the first being that if 
no brake is applied on the engine the car-brakes will 
have to do extra work in stopping it ; and the second, 
that in an emergency you will perhaps not be used 
to applying it, and you may forget it. 

Q. How can a locomotive be turned around on- 
the track f 

A. By a turn-table, a loop, or a Y. 

Q. How is a turn-table usually constructed f 

A. There is a circular pit of a diameter rather 
greater than the combined length of the engine and 
tender ; and having a circular track on which roll 
the wheels of a bridge-like table bearing the track and 
engine, turning about a central vertical pin. The 
wheels lessen the friction, and levers projecting out- 
wards from the turn-table enable one man to turn it 
with its load. Proper latch-pieces lock it in position 
to prevent derailment of the engine in going on or off 
the table. The turn-table of course enables an 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 249 

engine not only to be reversed bnt to be rnn on any 
one of a nnmber of tracks running in lines radial to 
trie centre-pin of the table. 

Q. On what principle is the loop constructed, 

by which to reverse the position of the engine f, 

A. There is very little to explain about it. There 
is a pear-shaped or kite-shaped siding which is led 
out from the track and returned to it, so that the 
engine which starts on it heading north returns to 
the main track heading south. 

Q. How is the Y constructed? 

A. It is simply a triangular track, usually at the 
end of a line ; the engine starts up one branch, at an 
angle to the main track, and curves off to a cross- 
track at right angles to the main one ; this gives it 
90 of change in direction ; then switching back to 
another curve it re-enters the main track in the oppo- 
site direction to that which it had on leaving. 

Q. What is a compound locomotive ? 

A. One in which, as ordinarily used, the exhaust 
from one or more cylinders is made to do work in 
one or more other cylinders, instead of escaping 
directly into the stack. 

Q. How many cylinders may a compound loco- 
motive have ? 

A. There may be two, one high-pressure and the 
other low ; or two high-pressure and one low into 
which they both exhaust, or one high -pressure and 
two low into which it exhausts, or two high-pres- 
sure, each exhausting into a separate low-pressure. 



250 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What are the advantages of compounding ? 

A. To enable the steam to be expanded more 
times without causing such a great range of tempera- 
ture in one cylinder ; to distribute more evenly the 
pressure due to expansion instead of having the pres- 
sure on the crank-pins vary so greatly during a rota- 
tion ; to enable greater starting power and greater 
hauling power on grades, than could be obtained 
with cylinders of the comparatively small diameter 
required for non- compound engines ; to call for less 
work on the part of the boiler ; perhaps to save by 
the use of higher boiler pressure than would be possi- 
ble with simple engines. Also, repair may be for 
some reasons less by reason of the strains on the pins 
and axles being more even, and the boiler being less 
worked ; and there is less cylinder- condensation. 

Q. Which should have the greater volume, 
the high-pressure or the low-pressure cylinder f 

A. The low. 

Q. How is this greater volume usually ob- 
tained ? 

A. By having the stroke the same in both the 
riigh-pressure and the low-pressure cylinders and 
giving the latter greater diameter ; or by having two 
low-pressure cylinders to one high. 

0. What is the usual rule for the ratio {pro- 
portion) between the high and the low-pressitre 
cylinder volumes f 

A. There is no general rule ; there is a limit 
placed by the maximum diameter that it is possible 
to give the low-pressure cylinder. In two- cylinder 
compounds the low-pressure cylinder may have from 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 251 

one and three quarters to two and three quarter 
times the area of the high. Perhaps about two 
-and one-tenth is the usual and best ratio for the 
present stage of knowledge in this line. 

Q. How is the division of the work between the 
two cylinders regulated? 

A. By proper adjustment of the valve-gear. 

Q. What is the arrangement of pistons in 
compound loco7notives f 

A. In some the low-pressure pistons travel in 
the same direction and at the same time as the high, 
both being sometimes fastened to the same crosshead. 
In others they are connected at right angles to each 
other. Where they are connected at right angles 
they have a receiver or chamber between the two 
cylinders. 

Q. How about the exhaust from a compound y 
as compared with that from a simple engine f 

A. There being so much lower final pressure, the 
hlast is softer ; and (with two cylinders) there are but 
two instead of four exhausts in each turn, with a 
larger quantity of steam passed out. 

Q. What effect does this have on the fire ? 

A. It is urged more evenly and gently, and there 
is less coal pulled. 

Q. Is there any preference as to which crank 
should lead, in compotinds ? 

A. There does not seem to be any reason why 
there should be, but most put the low side 90° back 
of the high for going ahead. 



252 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What may be said of the maximum average 
or mean effective pressure of the compound 
engine as compared with the non-compound, at 
slow speeds and late cut-offs f 

A. It is lower. 

Q. How is it with earlier cut-offs and higher 
speeds ? 

A. The compound engine is about the same as the 
simple (non-compound). 

Q. If the compound engine is designed for the 
power necessary at high speed, when will it be 
apt to be lacking f 

A. At low speeds and late cut-offs. 

Q. Sippose we make the high-pressure cylin- 
der large enough to take care of the heaviest 
work, what then f 

A. The engine will have too large cylinders for 
ordinary running. 

Q. What will be the disadvantage of having 
too much cylinder ? 

A. When on straight levels, the mean pressure 
needed will be got with earlier cut-off than is con- 
sidered good practice with ordinary valve-gear, and 
the final pressure in the large cylinder will be so low 
that it may be under that of the atmosphere. 

Q. If we have the high-pressure cylinder about 
the same size as for an ordinary locomotive, and 
the low-pressure cylinder properly proportioned 
to this, what should be the increase in capacity 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 253 

and economy in the compound over the non-com- 
pound engine ? 

A. About five to ten per cent, increase of hauling 
power, and ten per cent, fuel saving. 

Q. Is re-evaporation of steam in the cylinders 
greater or less in compound than in simple 
engines f 

A. Much less. 

Q. Does this make dryer or wetter steam in 
the cylinders f 
A. Wetter. 

Q. How about the steam coming from the 
stack, in the case of the compound ? 

A. It is usually wetter than from a simple engine, 
not by reason of priming, but because it is not re- 
evaporated. 

Q. How can this extra water be got rid of ? 

A. By cutting small notches in the cylinder-cocks 
so that they will always bleed a trifle ; and more 
particularly by having on the ' ' low ' ' side what are 
called safety-valves, but are properly automatic 
water- valves. 

Q. Is any special difference necessary in the 
slide-valves for compou?id engines and those for 
non-compound locomotives ? 

A. For compound working there is needed for the 
high-pressure cylinder larger inside clearance (neg- 
ative exhaust lap) by reason of its having ordinarily 
so considerable a back pressure, and of the necessity 
of keeping its exhaust open as late as possible to 



254 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

prevent excessive cushion in that cylinder; and as 
with the same back pressure as in non-compounds 
there should not be in the low-pressure cylinder a 
cushion pressure higher than the receiver pressure, 
the same excessive inside clearance is needful for the 
low-pressure cylinder also. 

Q. In order to keep the steam as dry as possi- 
ble, what should be done with the receiver, where 
there is one ? 

A. It is well to enclose it in the smoke-box 

Q. How large should the receiver be ? 

A. It should have a volume at least as great as 
that of the high-pressure cylinder, especially in the 
Worsdell and Von Borries types, where the larger the 
receiver the better the action in starting. 

Q. How does the turning power of the ordin- 
ary non-compound engine vary ? 

A. From about three-fourths that of the maximum 
for one cylinder, to nearly 1.5 times such maximum, 
according to the crank-positions. 

Q. Where does the lowest power co7ne f 

A. In that position at which no steam can be let 
into one side. 

Q. How may compound locomotives be classified \ 
as regards the number of cylinders ? 

A. Into two-cylinder, three-cylinder and four-cyl- 
inder. 

Q. Into what principal divisions may two-cyl- 
inder compound locomotives be classified f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 255 

A. Into those which may be worked non- com- 
pound all the time if desired, and those which may 
not ; the latter usually having an automatic device 
by which they are worked non- compound during at 
least part of a rotation. 

Q. What designs are included in those which 
may be worked non-compound all the time if 
desired ? 

A. Those of Mallet, the originator of compound- 
ing for locomotives. 

Q. What designs are included in those which 
are workable non-compound only in starting f 

A. Those of Worsdell and of Von Borries. 

Q. What is the essential characteristic of the 

Von Borries system ? 

A. A combined intercepting and starting valve 
which, when the engine is working compound, per- 
mits steam to flow from the receiver-pipe into 
which the high-pressure cylinder exhausts, to the 
low-pressure cylinder. There is a plate which in 
these circumstances stands off from the end of the 
receiver-pipe, but on starting, is seated on that pipe- 
end ; its movement uncovering ports which let steam 
from the boiler enter the low-pressure cylinder. As 
the engine starts, the high-pressure exhaust forces 
this intercepting- valve from its seat on the end of the 
receiver pipe, and closes the ports, which let boiler 
steam into the low-pressure cylinder, so that the 
engine then works compound. 

Q. How much of a rotation takes place before 



256 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

the high-pressure exhaust opens the intercepting- 
valve and closes the starting-valve f 

A. From half to one rotation. 

Q. Can these locomotives ever work " simple " ? 

A. No, because the high-pressure cylinder always 
exhausts into a closed receiver, never into the open 
air direct. 

Q. What characterizes the Worsdell system ? 

A. The intercepting- valve is a flap which when 
the engine is working compound swings down 
to one side of the intercepting-valve chamber and 
leaves the passage from the receiver to the low-pres- 
sure cylinder free. The action of steam on a small 
piston controlled by the starting-valve swings the 
intercepting-valve up to a position at which it closes 
the receiver-pipe ; at the same time a port is 
opened, letting steam- chest steam direct to the low- 
pressure cylinder. When the high-pressure cylinder 
exhausts it pushes back the intercepting-valve and 
cuts off the supply of high-pressure steam from 
the low-pressure cylinder. 

Q. In the Worsdell and the Von Borries com- 
pounds, how about the starting power ? 

A. When boiler-pressure steam is let into the 
receiver by the starting- valve, and the intercepting- 
valve thereby closed, the high-pressure piston starts 
out against a pressure in the receiver, which varies 
with the time that the engine has been standing, 
and with the condition of valves, etc. 

Q. In this type of engine, supposing that the 




PLATE VI. -Express Passenger Engine, American Type, No. 858, Baltimore and Ohio Eailroad. 
Built by Baldwin Locomotive Works. 



Fuel, Bituminous Coal. 



T °tal. 1693 



Actaal Total Weight 



. WorkiDg Order, 116,360 



Drivers, 75,210 lbs. Total Wheel-base, 21 ft. 11 id. ; Rigid Wheel-base, 7 ft. 



■rag-wheel Diameter, outside of Tires, 78 ) 



Grate-'surface, 24.75 sq. ft. Heating-surface, Fire-box, 149 sq. ft. ; Tubes 



IvOCOMOTIVK CATECHISM. 257 

crank starts at a dead point on the high-pressure 
side, how long will the engine move before it com- 
mences to work compound f 

A. About three-quarters of a rotation. 

Q. If the high-pressure piston is near the cut- 
off point, on starting up, where will compound 
working commence ? 

A. Usually after about seven-sixteenths of a rota- 
tion, depending on the position of the intercepting 
valve. 

Q. Suppose the crank on the high-pressure 
side is in the position where the admission is cut 
off, how will starting be done ? 

A. By the low-pressure cylinder alone, at least 
until the piston has reached a dead point, and then 
the engine will work compound for about seven- 
sixteenths of a rotation. 

Q. Then in general what may be said to be the 

starting power of co7npounds of the Worsdell and 

Von Borries types, as compared with simple 

engines having cylinders of the same area as the 

high-pressure cylinders of the compounds f 

A. During the first half revolution the compounds 
have the greater starting power ; after that it dimin- 
ishes until it is but 80 to 85 per cent, of that of the 
simple. 

Q. What is the advantage of the Mallet tzvo- 
cy Under compound system over the Worsdell and 
£he Von Borries ? 

A. That it has a starting power or emergency 



258 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

power at least as great as that of a non-compound 
engine of the same cylinder dimensions. 

Q. What is the essential peculiarity in the 
Mallet two-cylinder system ? 

A. There is a high-pressure cylinder on one side 
and a low on the other, with a receiver-pipe between 
them. The main steam-pipe runs from the boiler to 
the high-pressure cylinder ; there is a starting- valve 
connected with the boiler by a pipe, and an intercept- 
ing- valve which may either throw the exhaust of the 
high-pressure cylinder up into the stack or pass it 
into the receiver, thence to reach the low-pressure 
cylinder. The intercepting-valve is composed of 
two circular valves and a piston, making a balanced 
double poppet. The central opening in the inter- 
cepting-valve connects with the high-pressure ex- 
haust, the left (say) with the usual exhaust-nozzle, 
and the right one with the receiver-pipe. By open- 
ing the starting- valve, steam from the boiler is let 
into the receiver-pipe, and of course serves the large 
or low-pressure cylinder with steam at boiler pressure 
instead of with exhaust steam. This excess of pres- 
sure in the receiver puts on the large valve-piston 
which opens into the receiver sufficient pressure to 
close it, at the same time opening that valve-piston 
(on the same stem) between the high-pressure ex- 
haust pipe and the exhaust pipe to the stack ; so 
that the machine will under these circumstances 
work as a simple engine with two high-pressure cyl- 
inders, and will keep on doing so until the starting- 
valve is closed by hand. Closing the starting- valve 
causes the valve-piston to move over, so that one 
closes the communication for the high-pressure ex- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 259 

haust to the stack, and the other opens it for this 
exhaust to get to the receiver and of course to the low- 
pressure cylinder. At the same time, the boiler- 
pressure steam is shut off from the receiver. 

Q. Suppose that we have a Mallet compound 
engine with the high-pressure cylinder the same 
area as one of the high-pressures in an ordinary 
engine, and the low-pressure twice as large ; with 
a given boiler-power what will be the quantity of 
steam necessary to start the train, as compared 
with the simple engine ? 

A. The low-pressure cylinder need have only one ' 
half the pressure on it, to give the same starting- 
power of the entire machine. 

Q. If we give the low-pressure cylinder full 
boiler-pressure, how about the starting power of 
the compound f 

A. It will have a greater starting-power than the 
non-compound, unless the low-pressure cylinder is on 
the dead center, or the low-pressure valve is in such 
position that it cannot be moved to let steam in. 

Q. What is the Hughes or Linder starting- 
valve f 

A. There is a cock by which boiler-pressure steam 
may be admitted into the receiver from the main 
steam-pipe, when the valve-motion is either in full 
forward or in full backward gear ; and there are in 
the high-pressure slide-valve two small ports, which 
when the valve covers the end port, after cut-off, 
connect that end of the slide-valve with the exhaust 
side of the valve and hence with the receiver ; so that 



260 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

low-pressure steam is let into that end of the high- 
pressure cylinder which is covered by the slide-valve, 
thus partially equalizing the pressures on the two 
sides of the low-pressure cylinders, reducing the 
effective back pressure on the high-pressure piston, 
and lessening the resistance in starting in those pis- 
ton positions between cut-off and stroke-end, at full 
gear. 

Q. What precaution should be taken with this 
arrangement f 

A. To have a safety-valve on the receiver, to pre- 
vent the back pressure on the high-pressure piston 
being increased, which would have the result of 
lessening the power of the high-pressure cylinder in 
the same proportion as that in the low-pressure was 
increased. 

Q. With this arrangement, is it advisable to 
use the higher power in starting? 

A. That depends on where the cranks are. 

Q. If the low-pressure side is on the dead cen- 
ter, will it be desirable to use the extra pressure ? 

A. No ; it will be better not to let boiler-pressure 
steam into the receiver just at starting, but to let it in 
when the engine has made not quite one- eighth turn. 

Q. If the high-pressure side is on the dead 
center, will it be better to use the extra steam on 
the low-pressure side, or not f 

A. Yes, because as the low-pressure pistons will 
be about half stroke, there will be a very high rota- 
tive effect, say about four times as great as with a 
simple engine starting with the same crank-posi- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 261 

tions ; but this pressure should be reduced almost at 
once, to prevent throwing the high-pressure pistons 
out of effective action, and thus risking stalling the 
engine. 

Q. With this safety-valve, how about the 
power of the engine f 

A. It is less than that of the simple engine having 
two cylinders each as large as the high-pressure cyl- 
inder of the compound, and boiler pressure of 150 to 
the compound's 170 pounds per square inch. 

Q. Suppose that there is no safety-valve ? 

A. Then it is necessary to have all the parts on 
the low-pressure side strong enough to bear full 
boiler-pressure ; and the engine-runner must have 
considerable judgment in order to tell whether or 
not to use the extra steam on the " low " side. 

Q. What is the special advantage of the two- 
cylinder type f 

A. Simplicity. 

Q. What are the objections to it f 

A. The immense size necessary for the low-pres- 
sure cylinder. 

Q. How can the total work be nearly equally 
divided in the two-cylinder compound ? 

A. By cutting off earlier in the high-pressure cyl- 
inder than in the low. 

Q. Hozv may excessive cushion, especially in the 
high-pressure cylinder, be avoided in this two- 
cylinder type ? 



262 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. By giving rather more than usual inside valve- 
clearance, lead, and cylinder- clearance. 

Q. What is the advantage of having three 
cylinders, say tzuo low-pressure and one high ? 

A. Expansion may be carried further than with 
only one low ; the work may be more evenly distri- 
buted ; weights may be better placed. 

O. What are the disadvantages ? 
A. Complication, and high first cost and subse- 
quent maintenance. 

Q. What is the difference between a three- 
cylinder locomotive and the triple-expansion 
stationary or marine engine ? 

A. In the locomotive there are but two sets or 
stages of expansion ; the exhaust of the high-pres- 
sure engine splits and goes into two separate low-pres- 
sure cylinders which act alike. In the marine or 
stationary triple- expansion engine, which has three 
cylinders, there are three successive stages of expan- 
sion ; the high-pressure cylinder exhausting into the 
intermediate, and this in turn exhausting into the 
low-pressure cylinder, which in turn may discharge 
either into the air or into a condenser. 

Q. What type of compound has two low-pres- 
sure cylinders and one high ? 

A. That in use on the Northern Railway of 
France. 

Q. What is its general arrangement? 

A. The high-pressure cylinder is between the 
frames, the low-pressures are outside, the latter with 
their valve-chests on top, the former with its chest 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 263 

"below. The low-pressure cylinders are horizontal, 
the high is inclined one in ten. The engine is a 
Mogul and the middle axle is the driving-axle for 
all three cylinders. The low-pressure cranks are at 
right angles, and the high-pressure crank being mid- 
way between them makes 135 with each. The high- 
pressure distribution is caused by a main valve with 
a cut-off valve sliding on its back on the Meyer or 
the Ryder plan ; the cut-off valve having its edges 
oblique to the cylinder-axis, and the passages in the 
main valve being skewed so as to open into the cyl- 
inder as usual ; but the exhaust-port in the cylinder- 
casting, and the cavity in the main valve have their 
edges skewed. The main valve can slide crosswise in 
its driving-yoke. A second yoke holds it crosswise, but 
permits lengthwise traverse. This yoke is operated 
by a stem controlled from the cab, to vary the cut- 
off. In its extreme positions the valve will let steam 
blow through without doing work. This permits 
starting the engine with boiler steam in the two low- 
pressure cylinders with their cranks at right angles ; 
the high-pressure cylinder being left out. 

Q. Is the " one high-pressure and two low " 
type common in marine work ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. With such a sy 'stem is it possible to get the 
■work divided equally among the three cylinders ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. Is there any necessity for coupling-rods in 
this arrangement of three-cylinder compounds ? 

A. Yes. 



264 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What system has two high-pressttre cylin- 
ders and one low f 

A. The Webb, in use on the London and North- 
Western Railway. (See figure 52, page 91.) 

Q. How are the cylinders, etc., arranged in 
the Webb type ? 

A. The high-pressure cylinders are outside the 
frames and have their centers about four feet back 
of the front tube-sheet. Their pistons are con- 
nected to the second pair of drivers. The low-pres- 
sure cylinder is between the frames, and its piston is 
connected to the forward drivers by a cranked axle.. 
The exhaust from the outside cylinders passes around 
the smoke-box to the low-pressure steam-chest, which 
is on top. There are no coupling-rods, where there 
are but two pairs of drivers. 

Q. Where there are three driving-axles ; what 
is the connection ? 

A. The first driving-axle is driven by the low-pres- 
sure cylinder, the others are coupled and driven by 
the high-pressure cylinders ; but there is no connec- 
tion by coupling- rods between the high-pressure cyl- 
inders and the low. 

Q. Has the type with two high-pressitre cylin- 
ders and one low been ttsed in marine practice ? 

A. No. 

O. What is its principal advantage ? 

A. That there are no parallel rods. 

Q. Would they be of any use in this type with 
only four drivers ? 

A. No ; they would only complicate matters. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 265 

Q. What are the objections to this type ? 

A. That one of the principal reasons why three 
cylinders are nsed instead of two is usually to do 
away with large low-pressure cylinders ; and where 
there are two high to one low, this calls for an exces- 
sively large low-pressure cylinder; other disadvan- 
tages are the crank- axle for the middle cylinder ; 
increase in number of parts, in first cost, and in keep. 

Q. In the Webb compound is there any way of 
letting steam from the boiler to the low-pressure 
cylinder ? 

A. No. 

Q. What effect does this have on the starting 
power ? 

A. It is limited to that of the ordinary type having 
merely two cylinders the same size as the Webb high- 
pressure cylinders. 

Q. How great is the starting power of the 
Webb engine f 

A. It may run from about one-fifth to one- 
third that due to the weight on the high-pres- 
sure driving-wheels ; although the probability is 
that it will be from one- fourth to one-third ; and if 
this be enough to slip the drivers, steam will 
be automatically let into the receiver and thus into 
the low-pressure cylinder, until the receiver pressure 
rises so high that the high-pressure pistons cannot 
slip their drivers ; then the engine will be in shape 
to start as a compound. 

Q. What are the two principal classes of four- 
cylinder compounds f 



266 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. One in which there is used a very large re- 
ceiver, and in which the crank-angles do not play 
much part, and another (the " continuous- expansion" 
type) in which the high and the low-pressure pistons 
are rigidly connected, so that there is but small dead 
space between the cylinders. 

Q. What arc the engines of the first class ? 

A. Those having two inside- connected high-pres- 
sure and two outside- connected low-pressure cylin- 
ders and the Mallet " double-bogy " type. 

0. What engines comprise the second class f 

A. Those of the Baldwin (Vauclain) type, hav- 
ing the high and the low-pressure cylinders on the 
same side, with their pistons connected to the same 
erosshead. 

Q. In the four -cylinder receiver type, how 
many receivers are there f 

A. Only one. 

Q. What is the arrangement adopted on the 
Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway for 
passenger service f 

A. There are four pairs of drivers coupled. All 
four cylinders are beneath the smoke-box and have 
horizontal axes. The two high-pressure cylinders 
are between the frames and drive the forward axle. 
The two low-pressure cylinders are outside, with 
their centers lower than those of the high-pressure 
cylinders ; and are connected to the rear axle. The 
high-pressure crank on each side leads the low on 
that side 198°, to give the greatest possible minimum 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 267 

starting-power.* The Walschaert valve-gear is used, 
outside only ; the cut-off points are adjusted by a 
complicated cam arrangement. The starting- gear 
consists of an auxiliary steam-pipe and cock to let 
boiler-steam into the receiver-pipe, which has a 
safety-valve. 

Q. What is a tandem compound locomotive ? 

A. One in which the high-pressure cylinder is in 
direct axial line with the low, and there is no 
receiver ; the high and low-pressure piston-rods being 
•attached to the same crosshead, and both cylinders 
having their steam- distribution managed by one 
link ; sometimes by but one slide-valve. 

Q. What is the special advantage of the tan- 
dem compound f 

A. Simplicity, being in this next to the two-cylin- 
der compound ; and no complications in the matter 
of starting. 

Q. What parts are saved ? 

A. Distribution- valves, connecting-rods, eccen- 
trics, etc. 

Q, Where is the extra complication ? 
A. In valves, ports and cylinders. 

Q. What is the course of distributions and 
expansions in this type ? 

A. There will be cut-off in the high-pressure cyl- 
inder up to a certain point, then there will be expan- 
sion in that up to the point of exhaust-opening or 

* The last Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean engines have 
cranks 135 ° apart. 



268 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

release, when there will be a drop in pressure as the 
high-pressure exhaust mixes with that in the pass- 
ages between it and the low-pressure cylinder ; then 
there will be further expansion in the high-pressure- 
cylinder in the passages between the two cylinders ; 
then (the low-pressure valve opening) there will be 
another drop in pressure, up to that point at which 
the cylinders are in communication ; then there will 
be expansion until the low-pressure admission- valve 
closes ; from this on there will be compression in the 
connecting passages and in the high-pressure cylin- 
der ; and when the high-pressure exhaust closes 
there will be more compression in the low-pressure 
cylinder. 

Q. What is one of the principal troubles in 
the steam-distribution in this type ? 

A. The compression in the high-pressure cylinder,, 
requiring for its reduction large volume of clearance- 
space therein (which will make a drop in pressure at 
one point in the stroke) or giving the high-pres- 
sure valve "negative exhaust lap" and affording 
large clearance space ; extra weight of reciprocating 
parts, and loss of heat by radiation, with no chance 
to dry the steam between the cylinders. 

Q. Where the shifting link is used, what 
points of cut-off are to be avoided with the tan- 
dem compound type ? 

A. Early cut-offs, to get away with the evils of 
over-compression and wire drawing. 

Q. Does not the requirement of late cut-offs in 
the high-pressure cylinder with this type of 
engine cut into the steam economy ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 269 

A. No, because high expansion may be got by 
having a comparatively large low-pressure cylinder. 

Q. How about the starting-power of tandem 
compound locomotives ? 

A. As ordinarily built, by letting live steam into 
the low-pressure cylinders, this steam acts as forward 
or driving pressure on the low-pressure pistons and 
as back pressure on the high ; so that there would be 
no use in keeping the starting- valve open after the 
high-pressure cylinder had exhausted once. 

Q. Where have tandem compounds been used ? 

A. On the Northern Railway of France, by Du 
Eousquet, and on the Boston and Albany Railway. 

Q. What was the peculiarity of the French 
tandem locomotives f 

A. The high-pressure cylinder was directly on 
the end of the low, its front* head practically forming 
the back head of the latter ; the latter had two pis- 
ton-rods which passed by the walls of the high-pres- 
sure cylinder ; one balanced Allen slide-valve which 
was inclined served both cylinders, its seat having 
five ports. 

Q. What difference is there between this and 
the type adopted for freight service ? 

A. In the latter the second driving-axle is con- 
nected to the low-pressure cylinders and the third 

* The words " front " and " back " are here used in the special 
sense corresponding to locomotive practice, and are employed in 
just the reverse sense in stationary engine work. The words 
"crank" and ''out" ends and heads are best, for all kinds of 
engines. 



270 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

to the high ; and the high-pressure crank on each 
side leads its low by 232°48 7 . 

Q. What is the advantage of the four-cylin- 
der receiver type ? 

A. Uniform turning movement, excellent balance. 

Q. What are the disadvantages ? 

A. Increased first cost and expenses of keeping up. 

Q. What is the peculiarity of the Mallet 
a articulated " four-cylinder type ? 

A. The high-pressure cylinders are fastened to the 
rear part of the main frames, and drive one set of 
wheels, the low are on a front bogy with a separate 
set of wheels. 

Q. What is the advantage of this type f 

A. There is no dead weight ; the engine may be 
used on very sharp curves. 

Q. Describe the arrangement of cylinders and 
valves of the compound engine of the Rhode 
Island Locomotive Works ? 

A. As shown in figure 158. which gives a front 
section of the intercepting- valve at the ports d and e, 
and also a front view of a portion of the receiver with 
the exhaust- valve ; in figure 159, which shows a 
side section of the same while running compound, 
and figure 160, which shows the same while run- 
ning simple. The intercepting- valve being in any 
position as in figure 159, and the exhaust- valve 
closed as in the same figure, the throttle being 
opened, boiler steam will pass to the high-pressure 
cylinder in the usual manner, and also through the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



271 




Fig. 158. Front Section of Rhode Island Locomotive Works' 1 
Intercepting Valve at Ports d and e ; also Front View of Portion 
of Receiver with Exhaust Valve. 




Fig- 159- Side Section of Rhode Island Locomotive Works' 
Intercepting Valve, Running Compound. 



272 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



pipe D into the intercepting- valve A, causing the 
piston to move into the position shown in figure 160. 
In this position the receiver is closed to the 
low-pressure cylinder by the piston C, and steam 
from I? passes through the ports d and e, and the 
reducing- valve B, into the low-pressure steam-chest ; 
the pressure being reduced from boiler-pressure in 




Fig. 



1 60. Side Section Rhode Island Locomotive Works* 
Intercepting Valve, Running Non-Compound. 



the ratio of the cylinder-areas. The piston a-b-c 
is so proportioned that it will automatically change 
to the compound position shown in figure 159, 
when a predetermined pressure in the receiver 
E has been reached by the exhausts from the high- 
pressure cylinder. The engine thus starts with 
steam in both cylinders and automatically changes to 
compound at a desired receiver-pressure. 

Q. How may the engine be changed from com- 
pound to non-compound ? 

A. This may be done at any time at the desire of 
the engine-runner, by opening the valve F connect- 
ing the receiver to the exhaust- pipe, allowing the 
exhausts from the high-pressure cylinder to escape 
through the nozzle in the usual manner. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 273 

Q. How is the exhaust-valve F operated ? 

A. The small pipe m is from a hand-valve in the 
cab, connecting it to either steam or atmosphere. 
When desiring to run compound, m is put in con- 
nection with atmosphere ; the receiver steam keep- 
ing the valve F v& position as shown in figure 159. 
To run simple, m is connected to steam which will 
hold the valve F as in figure 160, the ports o open- 
ing E to the exhaust. The valve F takes either 
position at any time when desired by the engine- 
runner. 

Q. How can the engine be used non-compound 
at starting, in case of bad conditions ? 

A . By opening the exhaust- valve before starting ; 
on its closure the piston a-b-c will automatically 
take the " compound" position of figure 159, as 
already described. 

Q. Describe the Schenectady compound loco- 
motive ? 

A. Figure 161, page 274, shows a front elevation, 
partly in vertical cross section, showing the cylin- 
ders, their saddles, the smoke-box, the reservoir, 
intercepting- valve and steam-passages ; figure 162 
is a horizontal cross section through the intercepting- 
valve and other valves relating thereto on the line 
2, 2 of figures 161 and 164, showing the relation of 
parts when the intercepting- valve is open. Figure 163 
shows a similar view of some of the same parts in the 
position which they take when the intercepting- 
valve is closed. Figure 164 shows a vertical length- 
wise section through the intercepting- valve on the 
line 4, 4 of figure 162, with, the valve open; this 



274 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



figure being also a section on the line 3, 3 of figure 
161. Figure 165 is a vertical cross section through 
the regulating and intercepting valve- working division 




Fig. 161. 



Front Elevation (partly in Vertical Cross Section) 
Schenectady Compound. 



on the line 5, 5 of figures 162 and 164. Figure 166 is 
a similar section on the line 6, 6 of the same figures. 
Figure 167 is a vertical lengthwise section through 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



275 




Fig. 162. Horizontal Cross Section of Intercepting Valve and 
other Valves on the line 2-2 of Figures 161 and 164. 



27$ 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 




Fig. 163. Schenectady Compound, Working both Cylinders with 
Live Steam (see page 28 r). 




PLATE VII- 



-Compound Express Passenger Engine, No. 694, Philadelphia & Beading Kailroad. 
Built by Baldwin Locomotive Works. 



Fnel, Anthracite Coal. Actual Total Weight in Working Order (including two men), 129.700 lbs. 
Wheel-base, ft. 10 in. Cylinders, 13 & 22x24 in. Driving-wheel Diameter, outside of Tires. 78 in. 
Fire-box, and Combustion-chamber, 173 iq. ft. ; Tubes, 1262 sq. ft. ; Total, 1435 sq. ft. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



277 



the regulating division on the line 7, 7 of figures 161 , 
165 and 166 ; figure 168, a vertical cross section 




Fig. 164. Section of Schenectady Compound. 

through the intercepting-valve on the line 8, S, of 
figure 164. The feathered arrows show the course 



278 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

of the steam ; the short unfeathered darts in figure 
162 show the movements of the regulating- valve and 
the actuating-piston of the intercepting- valve. Fig- 
ure 161 shows a smoke-box A on saddles B, C 
connected respectively with a high-pressure cylinder 
D and a low-pressure cylinder E, on opposite sides 
of the engines and having suitable pistons and induc- 
tion and eduction-ports (not shown). The exhaust- 
port of the high-pressure cylinder is connected by a 
pipe D (shown in dotted lines in figure 161, and in 
full lines in figure 164), with a reservoir F, the 
other end of which connects with the inlet-pipe E 
of the low-pressure cylinder, in which the intercept- 
ing- valve G is placed, and across which it recipro- 
cates to open or close this passage. The intercepting- 
valve and the apparatus which belong to it are 





C 

Figs. 165 and 166. Sections of Schenectady Compounds. 

shown as mounted on the saddle C of the low-pres* 
sure cylinder, while the live-steam connections and 
high-pressure exhaust divisions are on the other sad- 
dle B. The low-pressure exhaust-pipe E l lies cen- 
trally between them. The intercepting- valve G 
consists of two pistons G 1 G% mounted at suitable 
distances apart, and in fixed relation to each other, 
on a sterner and having lengthwise perforation^ 1 for 
the passage of the live-steam through these valves 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 279 

or pistons. These valves traverse endwise a cylin- 
drical chest C\ which has ports c c opening into 
the low-pressure inlet-pipe E\ and with bearings c 
therein, in which the piston-head G i traverses ; these 
bearings forming, in fact, part of the valve-cylinder. 
A port or opening e in this valve-cylinder lets live 
•steam into the low-pressure cylinder direct, beneath 
the intercepting- valve, while the pressure of the 
steam in the reservoir from the high-pressure cylin- 
der acts in the opposite direction and on the upper 
side of the intercepting- valve when closed ; so that 
the live steam, which gives the greater pressure, 
tends to compensate any looseness in the fitting of 
the valve by tending to press it upward against its 
seat when closed and thus to prevent leakage of live 
steam into the reservoir. 

The piston-rod H, connected with the intercepting- 
valve, passes through suitable stuffing-boxes h k 
in the heads of the valve-chest and of a separate 
cylinder /, provided with a piston H\ which 
operates the intercepting-valve. This actuating- 
cylinder / has inlet-ports it 1 and an exhaust-port z 2 . 
The entrance of steam into this cylinder is con- 
trolled by the slide-valve K l on a stem K, carry- 
ing pistons K K sliding in a chamber K\ Steam 
is let into this cylinder through ports j j 1 andy 2 , 
the first two admitting steam between the two 
pistons, while the other admits it to act on the outer 
end of the larger piston K l , which latter is made 
larger than the other in order to insure its movement 
in the proper direction at the proper time. Live 
steam from the boiler passes through a pipe L 
directly to the high-pressure cylinder. A branch 



2 8o LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

pipe D from this pipe connects with a port i of an 
auxiliary regulating-chamber M, provided with a 
piston- valve m called a ' ' regulating- valve ' ' and 
traversing the inlets j j x of the regulating-chamber K 2 
to open or close them at the proper times. The 
pipe A/ 1 connects the reservoir A and its induction- 
pipe E 1 with this auxiliary pipe M and with the 
port / 2 figure 167, of the chamber K\ which has at 
its piston end an outlet f for the escape of steam or 
water which may leak into that end of the chamber. 



ON LINE 7-7 

M 





Figs. 167 and 168. Sections of Schenectady Compounds. 

The outlet i~ of this chamber is contracted, as shown 
in figure 165, or provided with means for regulating 
the escape of the steam therefrom, so as to prevent 
the slamming of the piston H l and of the intercept- 
ing- valve actuated thereby. A valve chamber M 
contains a poppet-valve AJ\ having two seats n n x 
and a stem A/ 2 , projecting outside the valve-chamber. 
A port it admits steam to this valve-chamber from 
the live-steam branch-pipe L\ and a passage 11 s 
permits its escape into the intercepting- valve cylin- 
der C 1 and thence through the port e, to the low- 
pressure cylinder E below the intercepting- valve. 
An elbow-lever O, rocking on a fulcrum o, has its 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 28ir 

longer arm so formed as to embrace pins o x on the 
piston-rod H of trie intercepting- valve. The other 
arm o 2 of this lever forms a tappet or wiper which 
acts at the proper time on the stem of the poppet- 
valve N l to open it. This valve has its outer mem- 
ber of larger area than its inner, the excess of pres- 
sure on its outer end tending to keep it closed when 
released from the wiper o 2 . The relation of the 
wiper and valve-stem may be controlled either by 
adjusting the collar on its piston-rod or adjusting the 
wiper. 

Q. What is the normal relation of the parts 
when working as a compound engine ? 

A. As shown in figures 162 and 164, in which the 
intercepting-valve is opened and the admission of 
steam to the low-pressure cylinder, except through 
the high-pressure cylinder reservoir and induction 
port E x , is cut-off. 

Q. How is it arranged to work both cylinders- 
with live steam ? 

A. The throttle- valve is opened, permitting live 
steam to pass through the branch-pipe L x and port /, 
and the auxiliary or regulating-chamber M y the valve 
m of which it forces to the right (see figure 167), so 
as to open the port / and let steam pass into the 
valve-chamber AT 2 , between its pistons K K. The 
right-hand one K 1 of these pistons being larger than 
the other, the steam pressure forces them to the 
right from the position shown in figure 162, to that 
shown in figure 163. This causes the slide-valve K l 
to uncover the ports i of the cylinder /, which in 
turn forces the piston H l to the right, closing the 



282 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

ports r 1 c 2 of the intercepting- valve, as shown in fig- 
nre 162. The relation of the ports is such that as 
the intercepting- valve closes, the wiper o 2 strikes 
the stern A/" 2 of the poppet-valve iV 1 and opens it, 
thus letting live steam pass from the pipe Z 1 
through the passages u 2 71 s into the intercepting- 
valve cylinder and through the port e therein to the 
low-pressure cylinder E below the intercepting- valve, 
thus operating it with the full pressure of the live 
steam. The intercepting- valve, as before remarked, is 
already closed, and the tendency of the live steam is to 
press it upward in its seat, so as to prevent any leakage 
into the receiver and consequent back pressure upon 
the high-pressure cylinder. The perforations^- 1 in 
the intercepting-valve prevent the steam from 
exerting any endwise pressure upon it in either 
direction, and it is consequently entirely dependent 
upon the action of the live steam upon its piston H l 
in the actuating- cylinder / The intercepting-valve 
should have sufficient lap to move slightly beyond 
its closing point, in order that the opening of the 
supply- valve N 1 may not take place until the inter- 
cepting-valve is fully closed, the tappet 0" being 
correspondingly adjusted. 

Q. WJien it is desired to cJiange from direct to 
compound action, what is done ? 

A. The live steam is cut-off from the low-pres- 
sure cylinder. The pressure in the receiver and the 
induction-pipe E l then soon becomes sufficient to 
force steam through the return pipe M 1 into the aux- 
iliary chamber M and force the regulating piston- 
valve m into its seat, thus closing the ports / and j 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 283 

and simultaneously opening the port j\ The 
steam then passes through this last-named port 
and the porty 2 to opposite sides of the larger piston 
K l the result of which is to force the slide-valve k l 
to the left in the position shown in figure 162, which 
opens the exhaust i 2 and the inlet i 1 of the cylinder 
/ and forces the piston H 1 to the left, thereby open- 
ing the intercepting- valve. This movement of the 
piston H 1 detaches the wiper o 2 from the poppet- 
valve N 1 and allows it to close quickly before the 
intercepting- valve opens. The parts having thus 
resumed the position shown in figure 162, the engine 
resumes its compound working. 

Q. Under what conditions will the intercepting- 
valve automatically be opened ? 

A. (1) Whenever the pressure in the receiver is 
sufficient to overcome that of the live steam in the 
auxiliary regulating- valve. (2) Even when the 
steam is cut-off, as in the case of a locomotive on a 
down grade, should there be sufficient exhaust from 
the high-pressure cylinder to cause the requisite pres- 
sure in the receiver. 

Q. State briefly the general plan of working 
■of the Schenectady compound engine, without 
going into details f 

A. The opening of the throttle admits live steam 
simultaneously to both the high and the low-pressure 
cylinders, and" by means of this same live steam 
acting through a mechanism separate and distinct 
from the intercepting- valve itself, the latter is auto- 
matically closed and the engine starts with its full 
power as a simple or non-compound engine. The 



284 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



steam-pressure thus caused in the receiver acts 
through the auxiliary regulating- valve m upon the 
slide-valve k 1 and opens the intercepting- valve, 
mechanism connected with which releases the valve 
controlling the admission of live steam to the low- 




Fig. 169. Diagram of Vauclain Compound Cylinders and Piston 
Slide Valve. 

pressure cylinder, which valve automatically closes 
itself, thus causing the parts to resume their com- 
pound working. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



285 



Q. Describe the Vauclain (Baldwin) com- 
potmd type ? 

A. This type has four outside cylinders, the high- 




Fig. 170. Vauclain Compound. 

pressure usually being above the low on each 
side, (see figure 169,) and the valve-chest for 
each side being inside and alongside of the cylinders. 



286 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



The valves are of trie piston type, consisting of a 
hollow block with cylindrical rims, fitting in a hol- 
low cylinder with apertures registering with the 




Fig. 171. Vauclain Compound. 

rims of the plugs, leading to and from the ends of 
the cylinders from the steam pipe and the exhaust 
pipe. (See figure 169, page 284.) They are fitted 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



287 



with simple ring packings inserted by springing 
them into grooves in the ping. The steam enters 
the high-pressure cylinder and drives the piston 




Fig. 172. Vauclain Compound. 

therein, on the return stroke passing through a circu- 
lar groove in the center of the valve, and being dis- 
charged through the exhaust port and the exhaust 



288 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

pipe. (See figures 169 to 172, inclusive.) The 
same operation takes place in both ends of the cylin- 
der. It takes steam at once from the high -pressure to 
the low-pressure cylinder, the two pistons being con- 
nected and moving together, no receiving- chamber 
being needed. 

Q. What is the piston arrangement in the Vau- 
ilain compound f 

A. Both pistons play together in the same direc- 
tion at the same time ; their position and the rela- 
tive position of the valve with reference to them 
being shown in figures 170, 171 and 172. In figure 
170, both pistons are at the crosshead end or back 
end of the cylinder; in figure 171, both are at mid- 
stroke ; in figure 172, both are at front or out ends ; 
the arrows showing the direction of the live and ex- 
haust steam in botb pistons and in the valve-chamber. 

Q. In designing a compound locomotive, what 
should be considered besides the mere matter of 
evenly distributing the power, and saving coal 
and water ? 

A. To keep the first cost and the repair-bill down, 
to keep the machine simple, and make the mode of 
handling as far as possible the same as the sim- 
ple expansion engines ; to permit a train to be 
brought in without unusual delay, in case of a break- 
down with one side only ; and in most cases to be 
available for both freight and passenger service. 

Q. Can a compound engine pull a heavier 
train than can be hauled at a given speed by a 
single expansion engine of the same weight and 
class ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 289 

A. No ; the hauling power of every engine is 
limited by its adhesion ; but at very slow speed on 
heavy grades, the compounds will often be found to 
be able to keep a train moving where a single expan- 
sion engine would slip and stall ; because the com- 
pound, having more uniform and regular pressure on 
the crank-pins, takes a more regular bite on the rails. 

Q. What is an objection to compound locomo- 
tives having the high-pressure cylinder on one side 
and the low on the other ? 

A. It is difficult to get the power so divided 
between the two sides as to avoid racking the 
machinery and swinging the engine from side to 
side. 




Fig. 173. Ten-Wheeler Compound, R. I. Locomotive Works. 

Q. What diameter of low-pressure cylinder is 
it practicable to get with an outside cylinder com- 
pound engine f 

^ A. Thirty-one inches, giving with a high-pressure 
diameter of twenty, a piston-area ratio of nearly 

2, 1-2 to I. 



290 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What should be the duty of an engineer be- 
fore starting out of the yard or rozmd-house f 

A. To look at the crown- sheet and flues and be 
sure that the water-level is all right ; to see that the 
fire is good ; to examine all parts of the engine 
and tender to see that there is nothing amiss or 
broken ; to test the rod keys by trying to drive them 
back with a copper hammer ; to see that bolts and 
nuts are home ; that the brakes go on and come off 
easily ; that there is sufficient fuel and water in the 
tender ; that all tools for repairs and for firing are at 
hand ; that the headlight is all right and all lamps are 
at hand, filled, and ready for service, all signals at 
hand and ready for use ; that there is a supply of oil 
and tallow, and that the sand-box is full of good dry 
sharp unfrozen sand. 

Q. What special tools and appliances should 
be at hand in case of accidents ? 

A. A pinch-bar, an ax and a hand-saw ; blocking 
for crossheads, a piece of pine board by which to 
cover the valve-seat ; a thick board to lay in the fire- 
box in case it is necessary to plug a flue ; flue-calk- 
ing tools ; some wooden flue plugs ; a couple of 
sheets of copper or other thin metal to put between 
the steam-pipe flanges in case it is necessary to shut 
out one of the steam chests ; and a pair of good 
jacks, or four to six oak wedges four feet long and 
tapering from four inches square at one end to a four- 
inch edge at the other. 

Q. Why is it that an engine is harder to start 
up after being still for awhile than after 07ily a 
few seconds stop f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



291 



A. Because the valve seat has become dry, except 
for a small portion of oil that really increases the 
traction of the valve on its seat. 

Q. What position of the valve makes it the 
hardest to start the engine ? 

A. Where it covers both end-ports, and hence has 
on it no back pressure tending to counteract the 
downward pressure in the chest, on its back. 

Q. In starting a train should the reverse-lever 
be in full gear or 710 1 ? 

A. Yes, because at first the valves run hard by 
reason of there being no steam film between them 
and their seats, and greater power is required to 
move them ; also there is the inertia of the train 
to overcome. 




Fig. 174. Camel-back Locomotive. 

Q. Where should the reverse-lever be set when 
the engine is drifting without steam ? 

A. In full gear, to prevent wearing the valve 
round and the seat in the centre. 



292 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What is the proper way to start a heavy 
train ? 

A. One car should be started at a time, so as to 
avoid parting the train ; then when all the cars had 
been started the engine should be opened out ; then 
when all were going well the reverse-lever should be 
hooked back to near the centre in order to save 
steam. 

Q. What is the danger of reversing the e7igine 
when running fast f 

A. Breaking steam-chests or covers, by excessive 
pressure. 

Q. What precaution should be taken in revers- 
ing suddenly ? 

A. Not to close the throttle- valve, else there is 
danger of the air that the piston compresses in the 
steam-chest and steam-passages, bursting the chest 
or some of the pipes, unless it could lift the throttle. 

Q. How may such an accident as this be 
avoided ? 

A. By having a relief -valve in the dry-pipe to 
give the compressed air passage. 

Q. How may the cylinder-cocks act in the case 
of a suddenly-reversed engine ? 

A. If they are opened when the motion is reversed, 
they will let the compressed air out at the end in 
which it is compressed, and at the same time that 
will let clean air in at the sucking end, thus lessen- 
ing at one end the danger of bursting the pipes or 
chest, and at the other end the amount of cinders 
that are drawn in by suction. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 293 

Q. How does opening the cylinder -cocks in 
case of sudden reversal improve the lubrication f 

A. By preventing the hot air from the smoke-box 
lapping the oil from the valve-seat. 

Q. What is the advantage of having two 
engineers to run an engine on alternate trips? 

A. It enables the work of one to be compared 
with that of the other and thus maximum service to 
be got out of both man and engine ; besides enabling 
incompetent engineers to be sifted out. 

Q. What should be done in case of the break- 
age of a steam-pipe in the s7noke-box f 

A. A wrought-iron plate should be fastened to the 
top joint of the steam-pipe, or a stout hard- wood 
plug driven into the opening and braced, if the run 
is a short one. 

Q. What should be done in case the steam-pipe 
breaks inside the boiler ? 

A. The pressure should be run down and the valve 
placed in the centre of its travel by the reverse-lever ; 
and if necessary to take water the engine must be 
kept still by chocking the wheels. 

Q. What is the sign made by a leaky steam- 
pipe ? 

A. Much like the blower sound. 

Q. What is the sign of a leaky dry-pipe, as 
distinguished from a leaky throttle ? 

A. A leaky dry-pipe will usually leak water if 
the boiler be well filled up with water. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 



294 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

blow-off, or of a hole being opened in the boiler, 
or of other bad leak ? 

A. The fire should be drawn, and the engine dis- 
connected in order to be towed back to trie shop, 
after the conductor was notified to send to the near- 
est telegraph office. A man should be sent back of 
the train to prevent accident from or to a following 
train. 

Q. In case of having to disconnect the engine in 
order that it might be towed to the shop in case 
of leak or other accident to the boiler, what parts 
should be fixed or taken down f 

A. The steam- ports should be closed, the valve- 
rods and main rods disconnected, and the crossheads 
blocked to one end of their stroke. 

Q. How would you be able to know that the 
steam-ports were closed ? 

A. By opening the cylinder-cocks and giving the 
engine a little steam, which would show if the ports 
were not blocked. Or, there should be scribe-marks 
or prick-punch marks which would show the mid- 
position of the valve. 

Q. How can the cylinders be oiled in case of a 
broken throttle-valve ? 

A. If there are automatic lubricators that work 
with steam on, there will be no difficulty ; but if 
there are no such feeders, then the best way is to oil 
from the cab when running down grade at high 
speed ; or on a level track, with a low fire, getting 
up a burst of speed and putting feed full on ; then as 
the steam drops the reverse-lever should be put in 
full motion, when oiling can usually be done. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 295 

Q. What accident is much like an unshipped 
throttle f 

A. The blowing out or unseating of the relief- 
valve, between the throttle and the boiler, which is 
provided on some engines to prevent bursting of the 
pipe in case of sudden reversal. 

Q. What should be done in case of the burst- 
ing or tins eating of the throttle relief valve ? 

A. Just as in the case of an unshipped throttle. 

Q. Suppose that it is found that the nuts on top 
of the throttle-valve stem have worked off , leav- 
ing the valve closed, what is then to be done f 

A. The valve should be opened, in order to let 
steam to the chests, and after the dome-cover is re- 
placed and steam is got up the engine should be run 
as in the case of an unshipped throttle, as the valve 
in this case cannot be closed unless there should 
happen to be spare nuts about, or the old nuts can 
be found. 

Q. Suppose the throttle should fail when open, 
at a time when the engine was working on damp 
rails, causing bad slipping ; what should be done ? 

A. The reverse-lever should be put in mid-gear. 

Q. Should you use sand in case of the throttle 
being stuck open ? 

A. No, at least as little as possible, as it would 
injure the machinery if used in profusion ; the 
engine can be controlled by the reverse-bar. 

Q. What should be done in case of the throttle 



296 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

getting disconnected inside the boiler, while open 
and the engine running ? 

A . The fire-door should be opened and the engine 
cooled down to let the steam -pressure down to a 
point at which the engine could be controlled by 
working it by the reverse-lever. The train-men 
should be notified and the train worked to a siding 
by the reverse-lever. 

Q. In case of the throttle-valve being stuck 
shut, can the engine be run f 

A. Yes, if there are tallow-pipes from the cab ta 
the steam-chest, the engine may be run by them 
without train. 

Q. What should be done in case of the throttle 
being disconnected while closed? 

A. The train should be guarded against approach- 
ing trains, and help sent for to the nearest tele- 
graphic station ; the boiler should be well filled, the 
fire dumped, and (unless there was danger of freez- 
ing up) steam blown off. The engine should be 
disconnected ready for towing in ; if it was a line 
on which there was not much traffic or if I could 
make a siding, I should take off the dome-cap and try 
to fix the valve. 

Q. What should be done in case of a burst 
flue f 

A. If it does not put out the fire, the engineer 
should dump it ; he should lower the steam-pressure 
in order to save the water in the boiler ; then he 
sh-oild plug the flue. 




PLATE 



d Express Passenger Engine, "Special High Speed" Type, No. 13,350. 
Built by Baldwin Locomotive Works. 



Fuel, Bituminous Coal. Actual Total Weight in Working Order, 126,640 lbs. ; on Drivers, 83,140 lbs. Total Wheel-base, 24 ft. 7 in. ; Rigid Wheel-base, 7 ft. 4 il 
Cylinder*, 13 & 82 x 26 in. Driving-wheel Diameter, outside of Tires, 84J4 in. Grate-surface, 24.77 sq. ft. Heating-surface, Fire-box, 128.23 sq. ft. ; Tubes, 1349.8 
«q. ft. ; Total, 1478.13 sq. ft. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 297 

Q. With what should it be closed ? 

A. It should be closed with an iron plug held in 
a special pair of tongs while being driven in ; or if 
there is no iron one carried, it should be closed by 
a wooden plug. 

Q. What precaution should be taken in driv- 
ing flue-plugs ? 

A. Not to drive too hard, lest the flue-sheet be 
broken. 

Q. If a wooden plug is used what precaution 
should be taken ? 

A. To drive it into the flue for some distance. 

Q. Where are wooden flue-plugs apt to be ^ln~ 
reliable ? 

A. In case of a burst in the flue when near the 
flue-sheet. 

Q. How far should a wooden plug be driven in 
a flue in case of a btirst ? 

A. About six inches. 

Q. Why will it not burn up ? 

A. It cannot, inside the flue, as little or no air can 
get at it to supply oxygen for its combustion. 

Q. How can you clear the smoke box from 
smoke in case of the necessity of plugging a flue f 

A. By putting on the blower slightly. 

Q. How can you get at the flue to plug it ? 

A. By putting a plank on the coal. 



298 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. Under what circumstances cannot you very 
well calk or plug a burst flue? 

A. If there is a brick-arch or similar obstruction 
in the fire-box. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken off 
blow-off cock, or of one that was stuck open ? 

A. The fire should be dumped and the engine dis- 
connected ready to be towed in, unless the hole could 
be plugged. 

Q. How can you plug a hole in the boiler, or a 
broken blow-off cock ? 

A. By a wooden plug split at one end, driven in, 
and tightened by driving a wedge in the split. 

Q. In case the whistle blows out what should 
be done ? 

A. A wooden plug should be fitted in the hole 
and fastened by a lever held down by ropes or 
chains. 

Q. What should be done in case of blowing out 
a safety plug from the crown-sheet while on the 
road ? 

A. The train should be disconnected and both 
sides disconnected ready for towing. 

Q. Should not the fire be drawn or dumped? 

A. No, the water and steam from the plug-hole 
would put it out. 

Q. What should be done with an extended 
smoke-box engine with a diaphragm, when the 
fire does not burn well and the inside of the fire- 
door gets black ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 299 

A. Either the flues should be cleaned out or the 
apron should be raised. 

Q. What is one of the signs that an engine 

has proper draft? 

A. The inside of the fire-door getting quite hot 
when running. 

Q. What should be done if the engine foirns 
the fire more at the back than at the front of the 
Jire-box ? 

A. The draft-pipe should be raised. 

Q. How may the draft-pipe be raised or 
lowered ? 

A. Usually by a sleeve that is provided for this 
purpose. 

Q. What should be done in case the engine 
tears her fire? 

A. First the exhaust-nozzles should be examined 
to see if they do not need cleaning out ; and if they 
do not they are probably too small and should be 
changed for larger. 

Q. What will be the effect of too low a draft- 
pipe ? 

A. The fire will be burned proportionately too 
much at the back of the fire-box. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
smoke-box front ? 

A. It should be boarded up as nearly air-tight as 
possible, the boards being held by the front-end 
bolts. 



}oo LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What should be done in case the pumps 
will not work f 

A. The tank should be looked at to see that it 
has plenty of water in it ; then the tank-valve in- 
spected to see that it is connected ; then the heater- 
valve may be opened a few seconds, and the pet-cock 
opened ; then the heater may be closed and the 
pump tried. If then the pump will not work the 
next point along the line should be tried — the lower 
pump-joint may be slacked to see if the water 
reaches that far ; if it does then the engine may be 
run slowly a few turns and the joint tightened. But 
if the water does not flow freely from the lower 
joints, there must be a choke somewhere in the feed- 
pipe, strainer, or hose, calling for attention in those 
quarters. If the pump does not work, although the 
water does flow freely from the joints, the lower 
valves should be taken out and examined. If they 
are all right and the pump does not work, then the 
pump had better be taken down at the shop and 
overhauled. 

Q. What should be done in case both the pumps 
and the injector fail f 

A. The fire should be covered dead ; the engine 
stopped as soon as possible, and examination of the 
line of water from the tank to the lower pump- valve 
made as in the case of only the pump failing ; the 
injector feed-pipe should be examined, because a very 
small leak here is apt to stop the injector. See that 
there is no obstruction in the steam-nozzle ; and that 
the branch-pipe is clear. 

Q. What should be done in case the injector 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



301 



works all right except when the engine is run- 
ning fast ? 

A. The experiment may be tried of putting at the 
end of the feed-pipe a washer with only a small hole. 

T 




Fig. 175. Rod Ends. 

Q. Suppose that the engine is crippled on one 
side, can the pump be worked on that side f 

A. Yes, if the main rod, guides and crossheads 
are all right the pump, if worked from the crosshead, 
may be used by taking out the piston and leaving 
the main rod on. 

Q. What should be done in case of the injec- 
tors or pumps entirely giving out while on the 
-road? 

A. The engine should be stopped, and the fire 
damped, to prevent further generation of steam. 
Then the tank-hose should be disconnected, the 
tank- valves raised to see if they were connected and 
all right ; and the tank-hose strainers examined to 
see that they were not stopped up. If it is the 



302 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

pump that has given out, it should be taken down 
to see that the valves are all right, and then tried 
again. 

O. Suppose that the water in the boiler should 
get dangerously low, what should be done f 

A. The fire should be drawn, or damped with 
earth- or with coal-dirt. 

Q. Suppose you had an engine with a pump on 
only one side, and broke the slide-valve on that 
side, what would you do f 

A. Block the ports on the crippled side, discon- 
nect the valve-stem, take the piston-rod out of 
the crosshead, and run with the good side, the main 
rod on the crippled side working the pump. 

Q. How then can the train be held still in 
order to take water with the pump f 
A. By chocking the wheels. 

Q. Why should all pumps and injectors and 
their pipes be drained of water in freezing 
weather, when put out of service ? 

A. To prevent freezing and bursting. 

Q. What is the best way to get the steam out 
of pumps and injectors and their pipes in put- 
ting them out of service f 

A. To blow steam through them. 

Q. What is to prevent them filling again in 
case there are leaky tank-valves or check-valves f 

A. The frost-plugs should be taken out, if there 
are any ; and if there are none the joints should be 
slacked, to permit leakage out. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



305 



Q. Why should the water be let out of the 
tank and boiler in excessively cold weather ? 

A. To prevent the sudden expansion of the water 
in freezing deforming or straining them. 

Q. What may be said about the height at 
which it is desirable to carry water in the boiler 
when running? 

A. It should be uniform as far as is possible. 

Q. Why? 

A. Because carrying first high and then low water, 
unless for a special reason, is wasteful of fuel and 
hard on flues. 



1 






c 


JUL 








— dA 





rfco 



Fig. 176. Rod Ends. 

Q. When is the time to use pumps and injec- 
tors ? 

A. When there is a bright fire is the best, in fact 



3 04 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

the only time, unless there is special reason for other- 
wise doing. 

Q. How should the water be carried on ap- 
proaching an up grade ? 

A. High, to keep the flues covered. 

Q. What should be done in case it is necessary 
to pump up on a descending grade ? 

A. To have a bright fire. 

Q. What should be done as regards the fire 
on a descending grade ? 

A. If no water is put in, the fire should be levelled 
and covered to keep the steam-pressure down. 

Q. In case of foaming what should be done ? 

A. First it should be seen whether the foaming 
was by reason of soap, oil or alkali in the boiler, 
or by reason of too much water; then if it was 
by reason of foreign material in the boiler, as 
would be shown by the try-cocks, with the throttle 
shut off, the surface-cock should be opened to let the 
foul water blow off, and the injectors or pumps put 
on to keep up the level. If by doing this the 
engine would not get to working right, and the 
water should still discharge from the stack, the fire 
should be drawn or damped to save the boiler. If 
necessary to keep running and the boilers did not 
seem in danger, the cylinder-cocks should be opened 
to save the heads ; the throttle closed slowly and 
the water-level tried. If there is a surface blow it 
should be opened. If there is insufficient supply of 
water the pumps or injector should be set to work. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 305 

The throttle should be slowly and slightly opened 
and the foul water worked through the cylinders, the 
height of water being tried then with the throttle 
closed. 

Q. What should be done to remedy foaming 
caused by grease in the tank ? 

A. The tank should be overflowed the first chance 
that there is to get water. A couple of quarts of 
unslacked lime put in the tank will help matters ; 
or a piece of blue-stone (sulphate of copper, blue 
vitriol, which may be had at almost any local tele- 
graph office), will aid if put in the hose back of the 
screen, if there has been no lime or other alkali 
used. 

Q. Why should the throttle be closed slowly in 
case of foaming ? 

A. In order to keep the water from dropping sud- 
denly below the crown-sheet in case there was an 
insufficient quantity. 

Q. Why open the surface-cock in case of 
foaming f 

A. Because foaming is usually caused by grease, 
which will be floating on the water and which may 
be blown off by the surface-blow. 

Q. Why is lime put in the tank in case of 
foaming by reason of greasy water ? 

A. It neutralizes the grease. 

Q. If you were stopped on the road and found 
your water dropped out of sight, how would you 
try to raise it f 



306 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. By opening the blower or the throttle so as to 
make something like the conditions of working. 

Q. Suppose that would not raise it to a safe 
height, what zvould you do ? 

A. Deaden, draw or dump the fire. 

Q. What should be done in case of failure of 
the water-supply in the tender ? 

A. The train should be left and the engine and 
tender run to a water- tank, unless there was some 
stream, pond or other source of water that might be 
used. 

Q. What should be done in case the water in 
the tender got low, in time of snow blockade ? 

A. The tender should be filled with snow, and 
this melted by the heaters. 

Q. What should be done in case of the tank- 
valve getting off its stem and dropping into the 
seat so as to keep the water out of the hose ? 

A. The heater should be put on with full force for 
an instant, to drive the valve off the seat. 

Q. Why not keep it on ? 

A. For fear of bursting the hose. 

Q. hi case of drawing the fire what precaution 
should be taken ? 

A. Not to have the drawn fire directly under the 
air- reservoir ; or if this was absolutely necessary by 
reason of the position of the engine, as in a derail- 
ment, the air- reservoir valve should be opened to 
release the air and prevent an explosion. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 307 

Q. Under what circumstances should the fire 
be drawn most promptly ? 

A. In case the crown -sheet or flues are left un- 
covered by water. 

Q. In case the fire cannot be diimped (as by 
reason of the ash-pan being jammed), how may it 
be damped ? 

A. By covering it with earth or sods ; or by drown- 
ing it out by snow or water. 

Q. What should be done in case of a burst or 
broken steam-chest ? 

A. If it interfered with the running of the engine 
the steam-pipe joint on the disabled side should be 
broken, by taking out the bolts, the flanges pried 
apart, and a blind gasket or thin piece of sheet metal 
inserted between the flanges, after which the latter 
should be bolted together again ; the valve-rod and 
main rod disconnected on the disabled side, and the 
crosshead blocked. 

Q. Suppose that in case of a broken steam- 
chest or chest-cover it is found that the steam- 
pipe cannot be slacked up in order to put on a 
blind gasket, what should be done f 

A. Wood should be fitted into the steam-passages 
and braced in place by the steam-chest bolts ; or, a 
piece of strong plank faced with rubber gasket 
should be bolted to the T-head (sometimes called 
nigger-head) after the branch-pipe was removed: 
and the main rod on the disabled side should be dis- 
connected. 



308 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What should be done in case a bridge 
breaks out of a valve-seat ? 

A. The engine should be stripped on the disabled 
side and run with the other side. 

Q. What is the sign of a considerable break in 
a bridge ? 

A. A strong blow through the exhaust. 

Q. Of what else is this the sign ? 
A. Of a cocked valve. 

Q. What causes a cut valve ? 
A. Tight fitting of a yoke, or its lack of alignment 
with the valve-stem. 

Q. What will usually bring a cocked valve in 
place again ? 

A. Giving the reverse-lever quick jerks to move 
the valve shakingly ; or taking out the steam-chest 
tallow-cup and with a metal rod driving down the 
valve. 

Q. In case this fails what should be done ? 
A. The valve-stem should be disconnected and the 
valve shaken that way. 

Q. Suppose that fails f 

A. Then the chest-cover should be taken up. 

Q. In case of damage to steam-chest or valve 
calling for blocking of the steam-pipe or of all the 
steam-ports, what disconnections should be made ? 

A. The main rod and the valve-stem rod. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 309 

Q. In what way is a slide-valve apt to wear ? 
A. With convex face. 

Q. In what way is the valve-seat apt to wear ? 
A. Concave. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
slide-valve ? 

A. It should be removed, and a flat piece of inch 
board laid on the seat to cover the ports ; on this the 
valve should be laid, at mid- travel ; both the board 
and the valve blocked, the chest-lid put on, the 
stuffing-box plugged with waste or packing (held in 
by the gland), the main rod taken down and the 
crosshead blocked ; then the engine may go on with 
as. much train as possible. 

Q. What should be done in case of a valve-rod 
breaking off close up to the yoke? 

A. I should first find out which side was disabled, 
by examining that side of the engine which was 
nearest the half stroke; then all cylinder-cocks being 
opened and a little steam being let in and the reverse- 
lever moved from forward to back gear to see which 
side the steam showed at the cylinder-cocks, the side 
which showed steam at only the back cock would be 
the disabled one. 

Q. Why is this ? 

A. Because if the rod was broken off inside the 
chest it could only push the valve ahead and not 
draw it back, and steam would show on only the 
back cock on the side the rod of which was broken 
inside the chest. 



3io LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

O. Why would you choose the side that stood 
nearest half stroke ? 

A. Because that being the side which would have 
fullest port-opening, the test would be plainer. 

Q. What must be done with the valve- stern in 
case it is broken off inside the chest ? 

A. It must be taken out and a plug put in the 
stuffing-box, else the stem would be blown out by 
the steam-pressure. 

Q. When a valve-yoke is broken what discon- 
nections should be made ? 

A. The chest-cover should be removed, and the 
valve placed centrally over the ports, and blocked in 
position ; then the chest-lid replaced. After that the 
valve-rod and main rod should be disconnected on* 
that side and the crosshead blocked on that side. 
Instructions should then be asked for as to whether 
the train should be brought in as a whole, or only 
part of it brought in and the rest left. 

Q. What may cause breakage of a cylinder- 
head? 

A. A broken main crank-pin or crosshead-pin, a 
loose piston-rod key working out, a follower-bolt 
nut working off or head breaking, part of a piston- 
packing ring catching in the steam-passage, or a 
broken crosshead. 

Q. What should be done in case of breaking or 
of blowing out a cylinder-head ? 

A. The disabled side should have its valve-rod 
disconnected and the ports closed, the latter to be 
proved by opening both cylinder-cocks and giving a 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 311 

little steam. Then the valve-rod on that side should 
be jammed fast by means of the stuffing-box gland, 
which should have the nut screwed up on only one 
side so as to cock it. The main rod should be dis- 
connected and sometimes the crosshead blocked at 
one end of the guides. 

Q. Why should not the crosshead always be 
blocked in case of a broken cylinder-head ? 

A. As a usual thing the break lets the steam out 
and the piston cannot be sent to either end of the 
cylinder. 

Q. What should be done in case both front cyl- 
inder-heads are broken ? 

A. If the piston and valve-gear are all right the 
front steam-ports may be blocked with wood and the 
engine run with all the train that it can take, with 
the back ends of the cylinders. If they are not all 
right, the engine should be disconnected on both 
sides and made ready for towing in. 

Q. What should be done in case of blowing out 

the stuffing-box gland and breaking off one lug 
and one stud ? 

A. Most of the packing should be taken out, the 
gland run clear back into the box, and the lug 
bolted solid to the head by the stud that was left. 

0. What might be done in case of both stuff no- 
li ox lugs being broken off? 

A. The outside of the gland-body might be 
wrapped with cloth and forced into the box by a 
jack. 



312 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What would you do in case of breakage of 
the body of a gland f 

A. Disconnect the engine on that side. 

Q. What is liable to spring and break piston- 
rods f 

A. Loose guides ; also pistons which are lined 
badly. 

Q. Sitppose a piston-rod breaks without smash- 
ing anything else, what should be done ? 

A. The cylinder-head should be taken off and the 
piston taken out ; the ports covered, and if the cross- 
head is injured the main rod should betaken down. 

Q. What is liable to result from a loose piston- 
rod key f 

A. Knocking out of a cylinder-head, or cracking 
of a piston-rod. 

Q. What precaution should be taken in taking 
down a cylinder-head, as regards the nuts ? 

A. To lay them down in such a way that each 
will go back in the place from which it was taken. 

Q. What precaution should be taken with the 
folloiver-bolts in dismounting the piston ? 

A. To lay them in such position that each one 
shall go back in the exact place from which it came. 

Q. How can a piston be got in the centre of 
the cylinder ? 

A. By a pair of inside calipers or by a stick cut to 
length ; or better yet by a wire pointed at each end, 
and of the proper length. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 313 

Q. Iii packing a piston, what precaution should 
be taken as regards the equality of the pressure 
of the springs ? 

A. To see by tapping the springs with a hammer 
that each one is just snug and that no one bears 
harder than another. 

Q. After the packing is set out, what should 
be done with the follower ? 

A. It should be cleaned before putting on. 

Q. Before putting back the cylinder-heads what 
should be doiie to them ? 

A. Their joints should be cleaned. 

Q. What is the danger in screwing up cylin- 
der-head nuts f 

A. That they will be screwed too hard and the 
studs broken. 

Q. In what order should cylinder-head nuts be 
put on ? 

A. The top one first, then the bottom one, then 
those at the quarters, and so on, dividing the space 
equally, and being sure that no one is run up hard 
before all are run up slightly. 

Q. Suppose that after taking off the follower 
the packing will be found not to be tight, although 
it seemed so before the follower was taken off ; 
what does this show f 

A. That it was too long and was held clamped by 
the follower. 



3H LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

O. How can a follower -bound packing be reme- 
dial? 

A. By putting between the follower and trie 
spider a piece of stout paper. 

Q. What may be done in case the piston-pack- 
ing is too short ? 

A. A piece of wrapping-paper may be put between 
the packing-rings. 

Q. How often should a piston-packing be ex- 
amined ? 

A. About every eight to ten weeks, according to 
the service in which the engine is engaged. 

O. What is a good way to hold a crosshead at 
one end of the guides ? 

A. To have a one-and-a-half inch iron hook to pass 
around the crosshead-pin, the end of this hook being 
threaded ; hook this around the pin, with the cross- 
head at the back end of the stroke, pass the threaded 
end of the hook through a hole in a straight piece of 
iron about four by one and a half inches, which is 
placed across the straight piece which bears against 
the yoke supporting the back end of the guides ; 
run a nut up on the threaded end of the hook, and 
the crosshead will be held at stroke-end. 

O. If the piston is fastened to one end of its 
stroke, zuhat should be done with the cylinder- 
eocks ? 

A . They should be tied open or taken off. 

Q. What is the reason for this ?■ 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM, 315 

A. To prevent knocking out the cylinder-head or 
smashing the piston in case the blocking gives out. 

Q. What is a hasty way to keep a piston at 
oie end of the cylinder ? 

A. Push it to the end, and push the valve in the 
same direction so as to keep the steam-port open at 
the end furthest from the piston ; thus keeping the 
cylinder full of steam pressing against the piston. 

Q. What is the objection to this ? 

A. If the valve should get away from its position, 
to the opposite end of the seat, the steam would 
move the piston back and smash out the head. 

Q. What is the objection to putting the valve 
in mid-position and leaving the piston un fastened? 

A. If the valve should slip there might be a 
smashed piston or cylinder-head. 

Q. What is a common cause of broken cross- 
heads ? 

A. Pounding main- rod connections ; or pump- 
plungers working out of line, or badly fastened in 
the lug. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
■cross head ? 

A. The piston should be taken out, the valve 
blocked at mid-travel, and the main rod taken down. 

Q. Why should cross heads usually be blocked at 
the back end of the guides ? 

A. Because if there is a smash by reason of the 
crosshead getting away it is better that it be the 
front head by reason of its greater cheapness ; besides 



316 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

which if the back head was smashed there would be 
likelihood of the piston, guides and guide-yoke being 
broken also. 

0. In case it is absolutely necessary to block 
the crosshead at the front end of the stroke, what 
extra precaution should be taken f 

A. To clamp the valve- stem so as to lessen the 
probability of the valve moving back. 

Q. What should be done in case the crosshead 
is broken so that it cannot be blocked? 

A. The piston should be taken out if possible. 

Q. In case the piston cannot be taken out in 
this instance f 

A. Then the piston should be pushed against the 
front cylinder-head, the valve pushed to the front 
end of its stroke, and the valve-stem clamped. 

Q. Can the crosshead be blocked at the back 
end of the guides in all engines ? 

A. No, there are some engines, with four pairs of 
\ i eels connected, in which the front crank-pin will 
not clear he crosshead. 

Q. What should be done in case the crosshead 
cannot be fastened at tJie back end of the guides ? 

A. The piston should be blocked at the front end 
of the cylinder with the valve at mid-travel, or else in 
case there is no damage to the front end of the valve 
or to the front steam-port, the valve may be put at 
the front end of the cylinder so as to let steam at the 
back end of the cylinder ; and the valve- stem should 
be well clamped. 




Fig. 207. Blocked-up Wheel, 



Fig. 206. Blocked Driving Axle. 



Fig. 201. Blocked Crosshead. 



Fig. 208. Valve Blocked in Steam Chest- 



Plate X- Emergency Rer>airs. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 317 

Q. Under what circumstance need not the 
cross head be blocked f 

A. If there is no pressure in the boiler. 

Q. What will show whether or not the piston- 
packing has been getting loose ? 

A. An asthmatic sound of the exhaust, instead of 
the proper sharp ring. 

Q. How many sounds of the exhaust are there 
for each driver-revolution ? 

A. Four. 

Q. How can the engineer tell which piston is 
blowing ? 

A. From the sound of the exhaust ; thus in look- 
ing at the crank-pin of the right-hand driver, the 
exhaust that takes place just before it reaches the 
forward and the back centres will be from the right- 
hand piston, and those which occur just before it 
reaches the bottom and top quarters will be from the 
left-hand piston, so that an intermediate blow com- 
ing between the forward centre and the bottom quar- 
ter, or between the back centre and the top quarter, 
will be likely to be from trouble at the right-hand 
piston. 

Q. What should be done in case cylinder-lubri- 
cators do not work right ? 

A. All the cocks should be taken off and the 
lubricator-cup taken off, while the engine is drifting 
without steam. 

Q. What will be the ejfect of this ? 

A. Probably to draw air through them and clean 
them out. 



3 i8 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What are the principal causes of lame ex- 
haust ? 

A. (i) The valves may need to be squared; (2) 
there may be a loose eccentric or strap or other part 
of the valve- gear ; (3) one exhaust-nozzle may be 
closed more than the other, or be choked; or (4) a 
main rod may have been lined too long or too short. 

Q. What may be said of the custom of lining 
or dividing the valves by the sound of the ex- 
haust ? 

A. It is good enough if the exhaust-nozzles are 
closed the same, and neither of them is choked. 

Q. Suppose that while watching the crosshead 
a heavy exhaust-beat comes when the crosshead is 
near the back centre, what should be done ? 

A, The eccentric-rod should be shortened. 

Q. Is this rule true both for forward and for 
backward motion ? 
A. Yes. 

Q. About how much should be let out or taken 
■up, at a time, in changing the length of the eccen- 
tric-rod to square the valve ? 

A. Not more than one-sixteenth of an inch at a 
time. 

Q. How can you square the valves by the tcse of 
the cylinder-cocks ? 

A. Mark the guides at the end of the crosshead 
stroke ; open the cylinder-cocks and move the engine 
slowly until steam shows at one of the cocks ; measure 
the distance from the mark on the guide to where 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 319 

the crosshead is when steam first shows ; then do the 
same thing at the other end and see if the two dis- 
tances are the same. If steam comes later at the 
front end than at the back (and there is a rock- 
shaft), the eccentric-rod should be shortened; if it 
comes too soon at the front end, the eccentric-rod 
should be lengthened. 

Q. In which direction should the engine be 
moved in squaring the valves by means of the 
cylinder-cocks ? 

A. Ahead in squaring for forward motion, and 
backward in squaring for backward motion. 

Q. Is this the case both for engines having 
rock-shafts and for those not having them f 

A. Yes, as far as regards the direction of running 
the engine ; but in case there is no rock-shaft the 
eccentric-rod should be lengthened in case steam is 
too late at the front end, and shortened in case it is 
too early at the front end. 

Q. Hozu may the valves be squared or divided 
with the chest-covers off ? 

A. The valve should be made line to line with the 
outside edge of the end port at one end, and the posi- 
tion of the crosshead marked on the guide ; the 
position of the crosshead when the engine is on each 
centre should also be marked ; then the engine 
should be turned over until the valve is line-and-line 
with the outside edge of the other end port, and the 
position of the crosshead on the guides marked. If 
the distances of the crosshead mark from the stroke- 
end marks are the same, the valve is set square as 
regards admission; if not, the eccentric-rod should 



3 20 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

be lengthened or trie valve-rod shortened, or vice 
versa, until the two distances are the same at both 
ends. The engine should be worked in the back- 
ward motion for squaring it for the forward motion, 
until it is as square as possible for both motions. 

Q. In marking the crosshead positions, what 
precautions should be taken to insure squareness ? 

A. That the same mark on the crosshead is made 
to come line-and-line with the marks on the guides, 
at all positions. This being the case it makes no 
difference at what part of the crosshead the mark is 
made. 

Q. If there is a blow, how is it to be known 
whether it is a valve-blow or a packing-blow ? 

A. By the sound — valve-blowing usually having a 
whistling sound at first. 

Q. If there is still a doubt as to whether it is 
valve or packing that is blowing, what should be 
done f 

A. The engine should be put at half-stroke, the 
front cylinder-head taken off and the valve placed so 
as to admit steam back of the piston ; then it can be 
seen whether the escaping steam comes from the port 
or from the packing. 

Q. In order to be sure which side of an engine 
is blowing, how would you test the matter ? 

A. By opening the smoke-box door and giving a 
little steam so as to see which exhaust-pipe gave out 
the steam. 

Q. Of zvhat is it a sign when an engine blows 
only when passing both centres f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 321 

A. That the cylinder-packing is wrong. 

Q. Of zv hat is it a sign zuheu an engine blows 
when passing over only one centre ? 

A. That there is a hole in the follower or spider 
on the side on which the blow occurs. 

Q. Of what is it a sign when on passing only 
one of the centres, there is a blow from both 
cylinder-cocks at once ? 

A. If there is steam packing, that one of the 
rings is broken on the side of the blowing centre. 

Q. Suppose that a blow occurs at the time when 
an engine is running, of what is it a sign ? 

A. That there is trouble in the valves or in the 
steam-pipes. 

Q. Suppose that when an engine is running, 
steam comes from both cylinder-cocks at once at 
the time when the tipper rock-shaft arm is verti- 
cal, of what is that a sign ? 

A. That the valve on that side of the engine is 
blowing. 

0. How can you tell whether or not the valve 
is at mid-travel ? 

A. By opening the cylinder-cocks and admitting 
steam. If there is no blow, then the valve is cer- 
tainly covering the ports. If there is a good blow at 
one end it is by reason of the valve being in such 
position as to leave one of the ports uncovered. If 
there is a slight blow at both ends, it may arise from 
leakage of the piston, or from the valve being cocked, 
or from a broken valve-seat. 



322 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. With the reverse-lever in the forward gear ; 
when should the forward cylinder-cocks show 
steam ? 

A. When the crank-pins are below the exhaust; 
and vice versa. 

Q. Suppose that there is an uneven sozcnd of 
the exhaust, and on inspection the eccentrics are 
found in the proper position, the rocker-box all 
right, and all visible bolts, keys and pins in good 
order and proper position, where should the fault 
be looked for ? 

A. In the steam-chest. 

Q. What sort of sound is made by a blowing 
valve ? 

A. A wheezy sound with a suggestion of a whistle. 

Q. Is a whistling exhaust always a sound of a 
blowing valve ? 

A. No ; it may mean that the nozzles are clogged 
with gum from bad oils. 

Q. What would be the effect upon the sound of 
the exhaust if a nut should work off an eccentric- 
strap bolt and let the strap open ? 

A. It would make an uneven exhaust. 

Q. What should be done in case of the sudden 
starting of an uneven sound in the exhaust ? 

A. The engineer should stop and look about the 
valve-motion to see if there is not some lost motion 
which may be remedied at once ; otherwise there 
might be an accident. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 323 

Q. Where is the most difficult knock to place on 
an engine ? 

A. That caused by a spider that has come loose on 
the piston-rod ; or that when the piston-packing is 
too short. 

Q. How caii the knock caused by a loose spider 
be detected? 

A. By the slight blow and the sharp click that is 
made when the engine is passing over both centres. 

Q. How may a loose spider be detected ? 
A. By the sharp knock made when passing the 
front centre. 

Q. When will a thump caused by a driving-box 
wedge having the wrong taper ; be made 'manifest f 
A. When the engine is passing the back centre. 

Q. Sippose that an engine pounds in full gear 
and the pounding cannot be stopped by either 
tightening or slacking the brasses, what should be 
done ? 

A. More lead should be given, or more cushion. 

Q. Why is it that engines will sometimes pound 
only in full gear f 

A. Because there the lead is least, with the ordinary 
shifting-link motion. 

Q. What are the most usual causes of pound- 
ing ? 

A. (1) Lost motion in the connecting-rod brasses, 
between the driving-boxes and the jaws, or (2) in 
the driving-box brasses; (3) side- rods out of tram 
or with badly worn brasses ; (4) worn guides ; (5) 



324 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

piston-head touching the cylinder-head; (6) a spider 
getting loose on a piston-rod; (7) a piston-rod loose 
in the crosshead. 

Q. Where will the pounding be in case of worn 
guides ? 

A. At the crosshead. 

0. IV hat is this liable to cause ? 

A. A bent piston-rod. 

Q. What is the best way to find out where a 
pound is ? 

A. To put one of the cranks on the quarter, block 
the wheels and have the throttle opened a little, and 
the engine reversed with steam on ; then each con- 
nection may be watched in turn as it comes and goes. 

Q. Where are the riskiest pounds on a locomo- 
tive ? 

A. In the cylinder. 

Q. Suppose that when the engine is moved 
ahead slowly with the cylinder-cocks open, steam 
is let into the front end of the cylinder before the 
piston has reached the centre, or that the back 
cylinder-cock shows steam too late, of zvhat is that 
the sign ? 

A. That the eccentric-rod is too long. 

Q. Suppose that with the engine moving ahead 
slowly with the cylinder-cocks open, steam is found 
to be too late on the front end and too soon on the 
back end, of zvhat is that a sign ? 

A. That the eccentric-rod is too short. 

O. Stppose that with the engine moving slowly 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 325 

ahead, and the cylinder-cocks open, there is too 
early admission 011 both strokes, or too late admis- 
sion on both strokes, of what is that the sign ? 
A. Of a slipped eccentric. 

O. Suppose that in this case the admission is 
too soon on both strokes, which eccentric will that 
show to have slipped ? 

A. The forward one ; and vice versa. 

O. What is one of the causes of slipping eccen- 
trics ? 

A. Clogging up of the oil-passages in the eccen- 
tric-straps putting extra strain on the sheaves, thus 
causing them to slip. 

Q. What is the best way to insure that slipping 
eccentrics can be put right in place without much 
or any "cutting and trying" ? 

A. Their proper places should be marked, so that 
if they do slip they can be put right back where they 
belong. 

Q. Suppose a go-ahead eccentric slips and its 
place is not marked, what should be done ? 

A. The engine on the disabled side should be put 
on either centre, the reverse-lever put in the back 
notch of the sector (quadrant), and a line scratched 
with a knife on the valve-stem right at the gland ; 
then the lever being put in the forward notch, if the 
slipped eccentric is moved until the line comes to the 
gland again, and the set-screws are then fastened, the 
engine will be adjusted well enough until more cor- 
rect setting can be done (of course, care being taken 



326 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

that the bellies of the two eccentrics are not on the 
same side of the shaft) . 

O. How can a slipped backing-eccentric be put 
into good enough position to rtin with, if there 
are no marks by which to set it exactly ? 

A. Get the engines on their dead centre, hook the 
reverse-lever clear forward, clamp the valve-stem so 
that it cannot move, remove the bolt connecting the 
backing-eccentric rod to the link, throw the reverse- 
lever all the way back, then move the slipped eccen- 
tric until you can put in the jaw-bolt — being careful 
that the bellies of the two eccentrics on that side are 
on opposite sides of the axle. 

Q. Suppose that both eccentrics on one side 
slip, what should be done f 

A. One way would be to put the engine on the 
forward centre, and set the go-ahead eccentric above 
the axle, and the back-up eccentric below the axle ; 
to put the reverse-lever in the forward notch and 
advance the top eccentric until the front cylinder- 
cock shows steam (the wheels being blocked and the 
throttle very slightly opened) . Then the go-ahead 
eccentric might be fastened. 

To set the back-up eccentric the reverse-lever may 
be put into back gear, and the eccentric turned 
towards the crank-pin until steam shows at the front 
cylinder-cock ; or else the back-up eccentric may be 
set by the forward one which has just been set, as 
though the forward one had not slipped. 

Q. What should be done hi case of breakage of 
a backing eccentric f 

A. Both eccentric-rods should be taken down on 




Plate XI. Seven-foot " Webb " Eight Wheeled Compound Passenger Locomotive, L. & N. W. Ry. comb 



Tubes: Front, 
Ba<- 

Total 



Number of Tubes- 



£ct . • . • . • &t " SSSS? C ?*. , *- , '9«^ft Outside Diameter. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 327 

that side, the main rod and valve-stem disconnected 
on that side, and the link disconnected from the 
tumbling-shaft by taking down the hanger; the 
engine could be run in full gear on that side, if there 
was no danger of the link swinging against anything. 

Q. Why not run towards mid-gear ; or in 
other words, hook up f 

A. Because that would swing the link. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
forward eccentric-strap ? 

A. Both eccentric-rods and straps should be taken 
down on that side, the main rod and valve-stem discon- 
nected, the ports covered with the valve, and the link 
disconnected from the tumbling- shaft by taking down 
the hanger. 

Q. What is the objection to leaving the back-up 
eccentric-strap and rod on in case the forward 
strap or rod has broken f 

A. It might prove dangerous. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage 
of a go-ahead eccentric rod f 

A. The broken rod and its straps should be taken 
down, as also the main rod and the valve-stem on 
that side, the main rod and valve-stem disconnected, 
and the link disconnected from the tumbling-shaft by 
taking down the hanger. 

Q. What should be done in case the upper 
rocker -arm was broken ? 

A. The valve-stem rod should be taken down and 
the valve set on the middle of the seat, the main rod 



328 LOCOMOTIVE -CATECHISM. 

taken down and the piston fastened at one end of 
the stroke. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
bottom rocker-arm f 

A. The valve- rod should be taken off and the 
valve jammed in a central position ; the main rod dis- 
connected and the crosshead blocked at one end of 
the guides. 

Q. Should not the eccentric-straps and rods be 
taken off ? 

A. Not unless the engine was in bad shape and 
the link-hangers loose. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage of 
the lifter tumbling- shaft ? 

A. A piece of wood may be fitted and tied in 
between the block and the top of the link- slot, on 
which the link may rest, this piece being long 
enough to raise the link enough to produce the 
desired cut-off. 

Q. What precaution must be taken about re- 
versal in case of a broken lifter ? 

A. The engine must not be reversed, as the lame 
side would be in forward gear and the good side in 
backward. 

O. What disconnections should be made in case 
of a broken link-hanger ? 

A. For a short run to the end of the trip, or to a 
shop, if the engine was running ahead and no reversals 
required, there need be no disconnecting ; but for 
a long run the valve-rod should be taken off on the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 32c 

disabled side, the ports closed on that side, the valve- 
rod jammed, the main rod disconnected and the 
crosshead blocked at one end of the guides. 

O. Why do you say in your answer to this 
last question, "if the engine was running ahead 
and no reversals required" f 

A. Because if the link-hanger let the link drop I 
should have the engine in full forward gear and 
could run in that gear ; but I could not reverse, as 
there would be no way of raising the link on the 
disabled side. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
saddle-pi7i f 

A. The link-lifter should be disconnected, and a 
piece of wood fitted in the link-slot between the top 
and the link-block, to hold up the link, in the posi- 
tion in which you desire it. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
reach-rod f 

A. The links should be held as high as desired, by 
blocks of wood fitted in both slots ; and the engine 
controlled with the brake. 

Q. What should be done in case a main rod 
broke without smashing the cylinder-head ? 

A. It, as well as the valve-rod, should be taken 
down, the valve should be blocked at mid-travel, and 
the crosshead and piston blocked at the back end of 
the stroke. 

Q. What should be done in every case, when a 
main rod is disconnected ? 



33Q LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. The piston should be blocked and the valve- 
stem disconnected. 

Q. What should be done when a set-screw in the 
back end of the main rod is broken and cannot be 
backed with the chisel f 

A. The strap-bolts should be taken out at that end 
and the crosshead blocked ; then the engine should 
be pinched along until the key was loose. 

Q. Why should a valve-rod be disconnected 
when its connecting-rod is down f 

A. To prevent the valves being worked on their 
seat when there was no steam, which would cause 
cutting. 

Q. Why should liners be put back of the 
brasses where they belong when rods are taken 
down f 

A. In order that they may be found at once when 
the engine is made ready for service, and that each 
one may be just where it belongs. 

Q. In case of breakage of a side-rod or of its 
pin, what should be done f 

A. Both side-rods should be taken down. 

0. Why both rods ? 

A. Because if the main wheel should slip and the 
back wheel be caught on either centre, the back axle 
could not be turned and there would be liability of 
either a broken pin or a bent side-rod. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
side-rod on a four-wheel engine having the main 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 331 

rods connected to the back wheels and the eccen- 
trics on the front axle ? 

A. All rods should be taken down, the ports 
closed, the crossheads blocked, and help asked to 
tow the engine to a siding or to the shops. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage 
of the middle section of a six-wheel-comtected 
engine ? 

A. All side- rods should be taken down and the 
engine run without train to the shops, siding or 
destination. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage of 
a pin or rod on the back section of a six-wheel- 
connected engine ? 

A. The back section should be disconnected on 
both sides, and as much of the train as possible run 
with the forward four wheels. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage of 
either the front or the back section of a side-rod 
011 a consolidation engine? 

A. If it was a back section broken I should take 
off both back sections ; if a front section , both front 
sections, and should come in with about two- thirds 
of the train, unless I could haul more. 

Q. What would you do in case of breakage of 
the middle section of a consolidation engine side- 
rod ? 

A. Take down all side-rods and run in without 
any train, 

Q. Under what circumstances should not an 



332 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

engine get along very well with the side-rods 
down ? 

A. With wet rails. 

O. What should be done in case of breakage q f 
the set-screw in a side-rod ? 

A. The bolts should be taken out of the straps by 
it, the other drivers should be blocked, and the 
wheels pinched over until the screw is loosened. 

O. What should be done in case of breakage of 
a main crank-pin close up to the wheel ? 

A. The main rod and valve-rod should be taken 
down, the valve blocked at mid-travel, the crosshead 
and piston blocked or fastened at the back end of the 
stroke, and both side-rods taken down ; and as a 
usual thing, the engine run in without any train. 

0. What should be done in case of breakage 
of the back crank-pin on a four-wJicel-connected- 
engine having the front wheel the main one ? 

A. Both side-rods should be disconnected and the 
engine run w T ith the main lods only. 

Q. Why is it that the breakage of one back 
crank-pin on a four-wheel engine is liable to be 
followed at once by the breakage of the opposite 
one to it? 

A. Because the breakage of the first pin throws 
extra pressure upon the main wheels and causes 
them to slip, and the unbroken side is apt to be 
caught on one of the centres and broken unless the 
rod bends. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 333 

O. What are the principal causes of broken 
crank-pins ? 

A. (1) Improper lining of the engine throwing 
100 much strain on the pin on passing a dead centre ; 
(2) thumping by reason of loose rods causing crys- 
lalizing of the metal of the pin; or (3) running on 
sharp curves with heavy solid rods having non- 
adjustable bushings for bearings. 

Q. Which style of rods breaks the most pins y 
those with solid brasses or bushings or those with 
adjustable brasses f 

A. The solid rods, by reason of their having no 
give. 

Q. What should be done in case the air-pump 
gives out ? 

A. The pipe leading from it to the reservoir 
should be taken out and the pump tried without it. 

Q. Suppose that after the pipe has been taken 
out between the air-pump and the reservoir the 
pump will not work, of what is that a sign f 

A. That something is wrong with the steam- valve, 
or with the ports and passage connected therewith. 

Q. Suppose that the air-pump works with the 
air-pipe taken down and docs not work with if 
in place, of what is that apt to be a sign ? 

A. That the pipe or its check-valve is choked, as 
with ice or gum. 

Q. In case the air-pump will not work in cold 
zv eat her, what should be the first thing to be 
done ? 



334 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. To run a lighted torch along the air-pipe and 
on the check-chamber, and to examine the receiv- 
ing-screen to see that it is free from snow or ice. 

Q. Suppose that air escapes from a brake-cyl- 
inder in freezing weather, by what may that be 
catised ? 

A. By frozen packing. 

Q. Sippose that in freezing weather air escapes 
from a brake-cylinder and the brakes fail to act, 
of what may that be a sign f 

A. That there is ice in the triple- valve. 

Q. Suppose that the air-pump works well in 
only one direction, of what is that a sign f 

A. That one of the air- valves is choked or cocked 
or otherwise crippled. 

Q. Suppose that the air-pump works well both 
ways but fails to produce the proper effect upon 
the gage, what does that show f 

A. That there is an air-leak. 

Q. Suppose that you cannot readily locate the 
air-leak, what should be done f 

A. The air should be locked in the pipe, and if it 
does not come from the governor exhaust-pipe, there 
may be a crack in the diaphragm. 

Q. What should be done in case a driving-axle 
breaks ? 

A. If the wheels are in position, it is often the 
case that the engine may be run without its train to 
a side track, pending the arrival of new wheels and 
axle. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 335 

Q. What should be done in case of the breakage 
of the front driving-axle on a six-wheel-connected 
engine outside the driving-box? 

A. All the side-rods should be taken off; the 
broken wheel should be removed, and the axle 
blocked up from the pedestal-cap to a position paral- 
lel with the other axles. The good wheel should be 
kept resting on the rail, the train left, and the engine 
moved slowly to a position whence help may be 
asked. 

Q. What should be done in case of a six-wheel- 
connected engine having its frojit driving-axle 
broken inside of the driving-box f 

A. All side- rods should be taken down, the wheels 
on the broken axle raised clear of the rails and 
blocked from the pedestal-caps ; the train left, and 
the engine moved slowly to a position whence help 
may be asked. 

Q. What should be done in case of the breakage 
of the back driving-axle of a four-wheel-connected 
engine ? 

A. The same as in the case of breakage of a front 
driving-wheel on a six-wheel-connected engine. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage 
outside of the box of the back driving-axle of a 
six-wheel-connected engine ? 

A. Take off the wheel and both back side-rods ; 
block up the axle from the pedestal-cap so as to 
bring it as nearly as possible parallel with the other 
axles, letting the guide- wheel rest on the rail; 
the train should be left and the engine run slowly to 



336 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

the nearest place from which to get help or at which 
to get instructions. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage, 
inside of the box, of the back driving-axle of a six- 
iv heel-connected engine ? 

A. Both side-rods should be taken off, both wheels 
raised to clear the rails and blocked from the pedes- 
tal-caps, and the engine should be run without train. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage, 
outside of the driving-box, of the main driving- 
axle of a six-wheel-connected engine ? 

A. All side-rods should be taken off, the broken 
wheel taken off, the main rod taken down, the cross- 
head blocked at the front end of the stroke, the 
valve-rod disconnected, the ports covered with the 
valve, and the latter clamped in place ; the broker- 
end of the axle blocked up from the pedestal-cap, 
the train left, and the engine run slowly to the near- 
est place from which help may be asked. 

0. What should be do?te in case of breakage of 
the main driving-axle of a six-wheel-connected 
engine, inside of the driving-box ? 

A. Help should be sent for to the nearest tele- 
graph station; and pending its arrival the engine 
should be got ready for towing in. 

Q. In what cases cannot driving-axles be sup- 
ported from the pedestal-caps ? 

A. In the rear drivers of a Mogul engine. 

O. What would you do in the case of a broken 
tire, or bent or broken driving-axle, of a Mogul 
engine ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 33) 

A. I should disconnect the back parallel- rods, get 
a piece of timber or of railway iron as long as the 
axle and thrust it between the spokes of the wheels 
on the crippled axle, in order to keep them from 
turning ; then run to a siding with the forward 
wheels, letting the rear ones skid. 

Q. What is the effect of excessive end-play 
between driving-wheels and boxes f 

A. It is hard on the rods and makes a rough- rid- 
ing engine ; besides being hard on the road-bed. 

Q. How much end-play should there be between 
driving-wheels and their boxes f 
A. One-sixteenth inch as a maximum. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
tender-axle ? 

A. The truck should be chained up as in the case 
of a broken wheel. 

Q. Suppose the front tire is broken ? 

A. The pair of wheels on one of which the tire is 
broken should be run on hard wedges or blocks to 
clear the rail ; the oil-cellars taken out, and wooden 
blocks placed between the axle and pedestal caps, 
and the front side-rod keys should be slacked; then 
the engine should be run slowly. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
back tire f 

A. Both back side-rods should be taken off, the 
wheels run on to hard wedges or blocks to clear the 
rails, the oil-cellars taken out, and wood blocking 
put between the axle and pedestal-caps ; the engine 



338 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

run without train to the nearest telegraph station 
where help may be asked from headquarters. 

Q. How fast is it safe to run an engine with 
the back tire broken or lost off f 

A. Five or six miles on straight reaches, two and 
a half to three on curves. 

Q. What precaution should be taken about 
backing, with an engine that had broken or lost a 
back driving-wheel f 

A. Backing would not be safe, particularly on 
curves, by reason of there being nothing to guide the 
engine, so it should not be attempted. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage of 
a forward tire on a ten-wheel engine f 

A. The wheel should be jammed up until the axle 
was level, a block put between the pedestal-brass and 
the oil-cellar on the disabled side, and the train run 
in without disconnecting anything. 

Q. Could a regular train be taken in this 
way f • 
. A. Yes. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
front truck-wheel or axle ? 

A. It may usually be chained up until the engine 
can be side-tracked. 

Q. What precaution should be taken in run- 
ning with a chained-up truck-axle ? 

A. To run very slowly for fear of displacement, 
particularly over frogs. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 339 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
truck-wheel flange f 

A. The engine should be run very slowly when 
necessary to run. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage of 
the centre-pin of a pony truck, at the front of the 
long equalizer f 

A. The engine should be jacked up at the front, 
and the cross equalizer at the back of the long 
equalizer blocked down, enough to keep the front end 
from striking the pony axle, so that the wheel would 
clear the rail, and chained at that height. 

Q. In case of this accident would you run in 
with full train or only part ? 

A. With full train. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage of 
the tender-wheel f 

A. A tie or a piece of rail should be placed across 
the apron of the tender to keep the wheel from turn- 
ing, with blocking between it and the tender-body, 
the broken truck should be chained to the tie at 
both ends of the latter, and the train should be 
run in to the nearest telegraph station with that pair 
of wheels sliding — the broken part of the wheel being 
of course away from the rail. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
equalizer ?■ 

A. It should be taken out, with the springs to 
which it is attached ; the crippled side of the engine 
should be jacked up as high as the other, the 
spring-saddles removed, if possible, and nuts and 



34o LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

washers put in on top of the driving boxes where the 
broken equalizer had been. 

Q. Suppose you have no jacks, what should be 
done in case of a broken equalizer f 

A. Nuts should be used to block up, on top of all 
driving-boxes ; one of the pairs of drivers that has 
no spring on it should be moved on to the hard 
wedges or blocks, and one that has wheels- on the 
rail should be blocked with hard wood on top ; next 
the wedges should be taken out and placed under 
the other driving-wheels, the engine moved on to 
them, and blocked up on top of the other driving- 
boxes ; then the wedges and all nuts used for block- 
ing on the other boxes should be taken away, and 
the engine will be ready to start. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
spring- hanger f 

A. It should be removed, and if there is a spare 
one the latter should be placed in its stead ; the end 
of the spring being held by the new hanger. 

Q. How can this operation be performed ? 

A. By jacking the engine up at the back under 
the foot-board to take the weight off until the new 
hanger is inserted. 

Q. Suppose that there is no spare hanger \ 
what should be tcsed ? 

A. A chain, if there is one handy. 

Q. Suppose that there is neither hanger nor 
chain available, what should be done f 

A. The equalizer should be raised about level by 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



34i 



a block of wood or of copper, jacks being used under 
the foot-board. 

Q. Suppose that in this case the engine has far 
to go, what special precaution should be taken ? 

A. To ease the other spring by putting a block of 
wood between the driving-boxes and the frame, and 
over the wheel where the hanger is broken. 

Q. What is the best device for removing gibs 
from spring equalizers, without jacking up the 
engine ? 




Fig. 177. Clamp for Removing Gib in Spring Equalizer. 

A. As shown in figures 177 and 178, the latter 
being for consolidation engines and having two 



342 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



straps, one marked A, going inside the frame, and 
the other marked B, and having a flaring bottom, 
going outside. This is so shaped as to allow room 
for the ratchet-handle to work. The nut-plate is 



CL 






B I 



// \\ 



Fig. 178. Equalizer Gib Remover for Consolidation Engines. 

grooved at each end to keep the straps in place and 
hold the plate steady. The gib shown goes through 
the slots in each strap across the equalizer.* 

Q. Suppose that there are no jacks about ? 

A. Then the driver should be run on a stick of 
wood or a block of iron four to six inches thick, 
under the forward wheel, to ease the back one, or 
under the back wheel if it is the forward one that is 
crippled. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
spring ? 

A. The same as for a broken hanger. 

Q. What size and kind of wedges would be 
necessary to run drivers on in case of a broken 
spring or hanger f 



* Invention of Mr. Henry Tregelles, Erie Shops, Salamanca, 

n. y. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATKCHISM. 343 

A. Oak, about four inches square and a yard long, 
tapered down to nothing, and part of the top of the 
thick end left straight for the wheel to rest on. 

Q. Where would you get these oak wedges f 
A. I should carry them with me to use in case of 
accident. « 

Q. Should any special precaution be taken in 
fitting in the block of wood between the oil-cellar 
and the pedestal-brass in raising the wheel-centre 
clear of the track ? 

A. Yes, if the engine has far to go, the block 
should be shaped out underneath to prevent the axle 
from resting on the thin edges of the oil-box. 

Q. Why should an engine be raised at the 
back end in case a spring, a hanger or an equal- 
izer is broken f 

A. To take weight off the driving-axle springs, 
and to keep the engine level so as not to uncover one 
part of the boiler or leave the other with too much 
water. 

Q. What makes the best blocking for raising 
an engine in case of a broken spring, hanger or 
equalizer ?: 

A. Wood, by reason of its elasticity, and because 
it will stay in place better than iron. 

Q. What will be the effect if one side of the 
engine is lower than the other ? 

A. The wheel-flanges will cut on the low side. 

Q. Suppose that the driving-axles are not 



344 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

square with the cylinders or are not parallel 
with each other, what will be the effect f 

A. The wheel that is too far back will cut its 
flanges. 

Q. Of what are cut truck-flanges a sign f 

A. That the engine is not centred with the truck. 

Q. If the engine is not in the centre of the 
truck, as shown by cut truck- flanges, which way 
should it be moved f 

A. Towards the side of the truck that is cutting. 

Q. What will be the effect if the engine is not 
in the centre of the truck f 

A. The truck- wheel flanges will cut, and the 
front driving-wheel flanges may cut also, on the 
opposite side to the truck- wheel flanges. 

Q. In case it is necessary to jack an engine up 
to get it on the track again, what precaution 
should be taken f 

A. To take down the rods to prevent their being 
sprung. 

Q. What is tisually the best direction in 
which to get a derailed engine back on the 
track ? 

A. Retracing the same line along which it came. 

Q. In disconnecting by reason of a broken 
7nain rod, where the cross head is blocked and it is 
desired to disconnect the valve-stem, how may the 
latter be held in one position f 

A. It may be tied to the hand-rail if it has a joint. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 345 

Q. What precaution should be taken when & 
locomotive is to .be towed by another engine f 

A. To take down the main rods, disconnect the 
valve-rods and tie them to clear the rocker-arms, 
and put all liners in their respective straps ; besides 
the special precautions which should be taken in 
case of any accident in freezing weather when the 
fire is drawn. 

Q. Why should the main rods be taken dozvn 
when an engine is to be towed, or why should one 
rod be taken down if an engine is to be run with 
only the other side ? 

A. Because otherwise the piston would be running 
in the cylinder and would cut its packing and the 
cylinder-bore. 

Q. What precaution should be taken in freez- 
ing weather when the fire is drawn f 

A. To drain all water from pumps and injectors, 
feed and branch-pipes, and if there seems danger of 
freezing the water in the boiler itself it should be 
run out of both boiler and tank. 

Q. What should be done in case there are na 
frostplugs in the feed and branch pipes f 

A. The joints should be slacked to let the water 
leak out through them. 

Q. In case of breaking down, what is t lie first 
duty after seeing to the immediate safety of the 
engine from explosion or burning? 

A . To guard the train by sending a man back on 
the road. 



346 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. Where should disconnecting be done in case 
of an accident? 

A. If there is a siding near, as much of the dis- 
connecting should be done there as possible, in order 
to free the main track. 

Q. In case of a wreck on a double-track road, 
in what order should the tracks be cleared ? 

A. All of one track should be cleared first so that 
trains may go around the wreck on the other ; then 
the other may be cleared. 



APPENDIX A, 

Official Form for Examination of Firemen 

for Promotion, and of Engineers 

for Employment. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM* 349 



Form of Examination for Firemen for Promotion, 

and of engineers for employment . 



[At the meeting of the Traveling Engineers 'Association, 
at Denver, in 1894, the Special Committee appointed for 
the purpose made a report bearing upon the examination 
of firemen for promotion and of engineers for employ- 
ment, and suggested a certain concerted action on the 
part of Master Mechanics and others in authority, and 
certain lists of questions to be asked the candidates. 

The report is here published entire, by reason of its 
many valuable suggestions ; and the lists of questions 
are also given, with either the answers thereto, or ref- 
erences to the pages of the previously-published part of 
this book, where such answers may be found. 

While this J 1 Locomotive Catechism," as originally 
published, contained over 1300 questions and answers bear- 
ing on the modern locomotive (being more than double 
the number contained in any other work having the same 
object), it is, of course, not to be presumed that all the 
questions which it is possible to ask on the subject could 
be contained even in that number. Hence, it so happens 
that some of the questions recommended by the Traveling 
Engineers' Committee may not be found (at least not in 
the form put by that body) in the original 1300 questions 
prepared by me ; and as many engineers and firemen 
wished the answers to those special questions, I have, with 
the risk of repetition, given the Committee's lists, with 
either the answers annexed or a reference to the pages 
where such answers may be found. — R. G.] 



35© LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



THE COMMITTEE'S REPORT. 

Form for Examination of Firemen for Promotion, 

and Engineers for Employment. 



So much has been written on this subject that your 
Committee feel they have considerably more on their 
shoulders than they can do justice to, but to our mind the 
most important thing that railroad companies can do for 
themselves is to procure the right kind of men for their 
firemen and future engineers. If care is not exercised in 
this particular, it is almost impossible to control the serv- 
ice later. The general reputation of the applicant for 
position, the kind of family he comes from and the com- 
pany he keeps, so far as it can be ascertained, should all 
have an important bearing on this. Because he may be 
recommended by some prominent man in a town, or poli- 
tician, should be given but little consideration. Those who 
are recommended by small politicians in towns or cities 
are generally of the poorest class that could possibly be 
had. Unless there is good reason, and one should know 
personally about the character of such people, it would 
be safe to reject them. 

The day o*f railroading by brute force is about done 
away with, and intelligence and good "horse sense" are 
stepping in. It was but a few years ago when all the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 351 

qualifications that were necessary for a man to have to se- 
cure a position of an engine was to be a ''good fellow," 
and have lots of muscle; but in these days of sharp compe- 
tition, brains must be the first element to be considered. 
Your Committee do not believe in going clear down in 
technicalities, as a man must learn a good deal of his busi- 
ness by experience; but we do believe that the only way 
to get fit men for our locomotives to-day is to have an ex- 
amination that they know they will have to pass at stated 
intervals. This examination is gotten up conservative 
enough, so that you can reasonably demand of a man 
that if he desires to continue in the service he must be 
right up in his examination. Yet the examination is 
severe enough to leave no doubt that the candidate is 
taking an interest in his work. 

We do not believe in publishing the answers to ques- 
tions that are asked the candidates. There is always a 
way for a man to get information if he wants to very badly. 

We would suggest that 19 years minimum and 22 years 
maximum be the standard of years at which men be placed 
as firemen. After a man is over 22 years of age he does 
not learn as readily as he does when younger. When the 
maximum age is placed between 25 and 30 years, the 
candidate on many roads is worn out before promotion 
comes. 

The traveling engineer should be required to keep 
posted on the every-day habits of firemen and engineers, 
and in the matter of promotion, have that part govern the 
examiners to a certain extent. Firemen for promotion 
should be examined according to age or rank in the serv- 
ice, and should a younger man pass while an older man 
fails, the younger man should rank ahead. The man 
that failed should be given a reasonable length of time in 
which to get posted before he is called in for the final 
"test," failing in which he should be dropped from the 
service. About six months should elapse before the final 
examination is conducted. 



352 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Your Committee submit the blank next attached as the 
proper form to be rilled out by all applicants for position 
as fireman : 



RAILWAY COMPANY. 

Application 
for position as , 

Present address , 

Age 

Married or Single , 

Name and address of parents 



If employed at present, state where and in what capacity: 



What railroad experience have you had ? 

Give name of road ; in what capacity employed ; length 
of service on such road, and cause of leaving : 



If ever discharged from any situation, state when and why: 



Give names and address of two responsible persons for 
reference as to your character and ability: 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 353 

I hereby certify that the above statement is correct, and 
if employed by the 

Railway, I will obey all their rules and regulations. 



Examined by 

Entered Company's service 

\ecord 

This application blank should be rilled out before a wit- 
ness, and filed for future reference. When this has been 
lone, the candidate should be examined on his ability to 
read some written matter ; also a paragraph from news- 
paper or time-table should be submitted ; then submit a 
few examples in arithmetic, to see if candidate is posted 
on this branch of education, which we think is very neces- 
sary. Candidate should then be examined on color 
sense and vision; and we think the Thompson color ex- 
amination is the fairest and simplest color test that is now 
in use, and recommend its adoption. Blank on pages 32 
and 33 covers that examination, and is very simple, a 
copy of which should be filed with the application blank 
for future reference. 

The color examination should be gone through in all 
cases when an application for position has been made. 

We would recommend that the examination on trans- 
portation rules and time card be conducted by the trans- 
portation department, and they be requested to file cer- 
tificate of examination with the mechanical department 
of each individual examination that is under the Master 
Mechanic, and that certificate be attached to the applica- 
tion blank on file. 

Your Committee would recommend that all men hired 
with the intention of making future engineers of them be 



354 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 
COLOR TEST. 



R'y. 



Examination of Sight and Hearing of 



■ Aged-- 



Employed as — 
Applicant for- 



AGIJTENESS OF VISION. 


RANGE OF VISION. 


The number of the series seen at 20 feet distance. 


Least number of inches at 
which type D — 0, 5, in test 
type pamphlet can be read. 


Right Eye, j Left Eye, 






inches | inches 


Right Eye, 


FIELD OF VISION. 




Left Eye, 


Good or Defective, | 



COLOR SENSE. 



A— Green. 
B— Rose. 
C-Red. 



NAME GIVEN. 



Numbers Selected to Match. 



Second Color Test. 


Thied Color Test. 


No. Shown. 


Name Given. 


Numbers Selected. 


Flag Shown. 


Name and 
Use Given. 


Numbers Selected. 

















































SELECTION PROMPT OR HESITATING. 



HEARING. 



RIGHT EAR. 



Conversation. 



LEFT EAR. 



REMARKS. 



Examiner. 



Acuteness, Range. 

Color Sense Hearing.. 



NOTE. — These approved, mark " app'd." 

Those not approved, mark " not app'd." 



Superintendents 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 355 

placed in round-house for a short time, as machinist help- 
ers or wipers. All new men hired, with the intention of 
making future engineers of them, should be placed on six 
months' probation, to determine whether they are cutout 
of the right kind of cloth to make good engineers, this six 
months to include all men hired, regardless of their pre- 
vious experience, unless the man hired is provided with a 
certificate setting forth his record. By this six months' 
probation, all roads hiring new men can very easily drop 
from their service any man that does not pass the exam- 
ination required. To cover that head we submit the fol- 
lowing notice, which can be changed to meet the service 
of any road, as desired : 

OFFICE OF THE MASTER MECHANIC. 



CIRCULAR. 
To Locomotive Engineers and Firemen: 

Commencing at an early date and continuing thereafter, 
all Engineers and Firemen who have served three years 
as road firemen on this line will be called to pass an ex- 
amination on transportation rules and mechanical ability, 
in seniority order, for the purpose of establishing their 
ability as locomotive engineers. Mechanical examination 
to include air-brakes. 

If any fail on first examination they will be given 
another chance six (6) months later, and if a second fail- 
ure is made they will have the option of retiring from the 
service or going to the foot of the firemen's list. 

If, when they come around again in regular order for ex- 
amination, they do not pass, they will be dropped from the 
service. Applicants for a second examination will be 
permitted to bring one or two witnesses to attend the exam- 
ination ; said witnesses to be engineers who have success- 
fully passed the same examination. 



356 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

This system has been adopted for the purpose of giving" 
all our firemen the chance of fitting themselves for loco° 
motive engineers, as we do not wish to have in our em- 
ploy as firemen any men who are not capable of making 
first-class engineers. 

When engineers are needed, the Railroad Company 
will, if deemed advisable, promote to the position of 
switch engineer the fireman oldest in service who has 
passed the examination. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 357 



FIRST EXAMINATION. 



At the end of six months would recommend the follow- 
ing list of questions be asked the candidate — that is, the 
candidate whose only experience has been for six months. 

Q. 1. What engines have you been firing f 

A.— 

Q. 2 What build and class of engines are 
they ? 

A.— 

Q. 3. What kind of injectors on these engines ? 

A.— 

Q. 4. Are you familiar with all the signals 
in use on this road? 

A. Yes. 

Q. 5. Explain them. 

A.— 

Q. 6. What is the use of the engine bell f 

A.— 

Q. 7, About how much coal does engine 
No. — burn each day, or trip f 

A.— 

Q. 8. Does engine No. — steam freely f 

A — 

Q. 9. Hozv much steam does she carry f 

A.— 



358 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. 10. Do you allow the engine you have been 
firing to pop, or blow off, frequently ? 

A. No. 

Q. ii. Do you know anything about black 
smoke, and what it is ? 

A. It consists of combustion-gases resulting from 
the combination of the oxygen and nitrogen of the 
air with the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel, and 
mixed with unconsumed (that is, unoxidized) car- 
bon, by reason of improper amount of air- supply. 
Perfectly-burned carbon produces colorless smoke. 

Q. 1 2. What are fireman s duties on arriving 
at engine before starting out on the trip ? 

A. He should be on hand from one-quarter to one- 
half hour before the engine is to leave the round-house; 
have the cab and its contents made clean and free 
from dust, windows bright, deck swept, coal watered. 
oil cans filled and in place, water-supply looked to, 
gages inspected to see that they are in working order, 
lamps filled and in order. He should look at the 
number of cars and the load to be hauled and see 
what character of coal he has to do it with ; see that 
the ash-pan is free from cinders ; that all the supplies, 
flags, lanterns, torpedoes, etc., are in place and of the 
right character; that all tools are in place, fire-irons 
on the tender in their proper places, water-supply 
correct, and sand-box full of clean dry sand. 



These questions are intended as a guide to the examiner, 
and to lead him to others of more importance, and in 
gauging the qualifications of candidate. If candidate has 
had three or more years' experience firing, give him full 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 359 

examination. In no case should the examiner confine 
himself to the questions set forth in this list, but should 
ask as many more, all leading up to the same point, i. e,, 
to find out just how much the candidate knows about the 
trade he has been learning. 



SECOND EXAMINATION, 



The second examination should be conducted when 
the candidate has fired about eighteen months, and we 
would recommend the following : 

Q. i. What is your understanding of steam- 
pressure, as shown by the steam-gage ? 

A. It is pressure per square inch on the interior of 
the boiler and connected parts over and above the 
atmospheric pressure of about 14.7 lbs. per square 
inch. (Pressure including such atmospheric press- 
ure is called ' ' absolute pressure " or " pressure above 
vacuum.") 

Q. 2. What is the result of exhaust steam going 
through the stack? 
A. See page 51. 

Q. 3. In zv hat zvay does the exhaust steam create 
draft on the fire ? 
A. See page 51. 

Q. 4. What is your idea of the proper size of 
stack — inside diameter, length, and taper or 
straight inside f 
A. See page 57. 



360 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. . 

Q. 5. Will air enough come through the grates 
and fire to form perfect combustion of the coal? 

A. Seldom, even with thin fires. 

Q. 6. Is it necessary to admit a,ny air above t,he 
fire? 

A. Usually . 

Q. 7. What is the object of the hollow stay- 
bolts f 

A. Two-fold ; to admit air above the grate, and to 
enable a broken one to be at once detected. 

Q. 8. What is the. object of holes in the firebox 
door ? 

A. Partly to admit air above the grate, to facili- 
tate complete combustion ; partly to keep the fire- 
door from warping. 

Q. 9. Will the cold air mix with the gases 
from the coal and burn at once, or must it be heated 
first f 

A. First heating would be better, but it cannot be 
properly effected. 

Q. 1 o. What effect would a very small exhaust- 
nozzle have on the fire ? 

A. Seepage 53. 

Q. 11. When the fire burns most in the front 
end of the firebox, what does it indicate ? 

A. That the lower tubes have proportionately too 
much draft. 

Q. 12. How is this remedied '? 

A. By raising the petticoat-pipe, if there is one, 
or by shifting the diaphragm or adjustable apron in 
the case of an engine with a ' ' long front end . ' ' 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 361 

Q. 13. What is the object of the brick arch f 

A. See page 44. 

Q. 1 4. Does it save any coal f How f 

A. See page 46. 

Q. 15. Explain how you would fire an engine to 
make her steam well, run light on coal, and avoid 
unnecessary smoke ? 

A. Little and often, regularly over the entire sur- 
face of the box, leaving a fire of that thickness which 
produces the best results with the fuel ; paying es- 
pecial attention to have the edges and corners cov- 
ered so as to prevent the entrance of cold air and 
the consequent cooling of the firebox sheets ; the coal 
being broken to that degree which will produce the 
most prompt and regular results, and as nearly reg- 
ular in size as possible. 

Q. 16. How do you keep smoke from trailing 
over train when running shut off f 

A. Avoid opening the fire-door ; use the blower 
sparingly. 

Q. 1 7. What effect does it have tipon the fire to 
open the firebox door when the engine is working f 

A. It causes excess of cold air to chill the combus- 
tion-gases, and makes black smoke ; besides this, it 
tends to crack sheets and make fires leak. 

Q. 18. What effect does wetting the coal have f 

A. In some cases it improves the combustion ; this 
being the case only with soft coal, and usually only 
with small sizes. 

Q. 19. What will you do with a fire that is 
banked? 



362 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. See that it does not get any more draft through 
it than can be helped ; especially if it is banked by 
reason of such a failure in some vital part, or of an 
imperfectly-stopped leak, as would cause trouble by 
rise of pressure. At the same time I would see that 
it did not go out entirely. 

Q. 20. How does the blower operate ? 

A. See page 29. 

Q. 21. Do you use it on a free-steaming engine 
to prevent dense black s7noke when shut off ? 

A. Sparingly. 

Q. 22. If blower is put on too strong when clean- 
ing the fire, what is liable to happen ? 

A. Tearing of the fire. 

O. 23. How much coal does your engine burn 
each trip ? 

A.— 

Q. 24. How does this compare with the other en- 
gines of the same class, hi the same kind of service? 

A.— 

O. 25. Do you consider it wasteful to have an 
engine blow off steam frequently f 

A. Decidedly; also in less degree to be always 
whistling. 

Q. 26. Are you on friendly terms with your 



? 



engineer 

A. It would be unfortunate if I were not ; because 
it is in his power to help me gain a knowledge of 
the construction and operation of the engine, so that 
I can some day get a better run. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 363 



Examination for Firemen for Promotion and 
Engineers for Employment. 



Your Committee recommend the following list of ques- 
tions as necessary to be asked before promoting fireman to 
engineer, or employing new men as engineers, adding any 
question that is thought necessary and not down on the 
list. When answer is given to question asked, always 
ask the candidate Why f and be sure he gives the correct 
understanding to all questions asked. Your Committee 
w r ould further recommend that the use of a stenographer 
be taken in this examination, and the answers to all ques- 
tions recorded, so that the candidate cannot say that the 
examiner had it in for him and took the means of exam- 
ination to "do him up. " That is generally the ignorant 
man's excuse for failing. 

Your Committee further suggest that the engineers for 
whom firemen have fired be consulted regarding candi- 
date's ability, and said engineer's opinion to be considered 
in the best interest of the Company, and not allow any 
personalities to control the ability of engineers to pass 
judgment upon their firemen, should always be borne in 
mind. 

Q. 1. What is a locomotive ? 
A. See pages 9 to 16 inclusive. 
Q. 2. What are your first ditties zvhen going 
out of the house with the engine f 
A. See page 290. 

Q. 3. What tools do you consider necessary ? 
A. See page 290. 



364 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. 4. What stpplies ? 

A. See page 290. 

Q. 5. How do you locate a pound in an engine f 

A. See page 324. 

Q. 6. If pound is in the rods, can you always 

locate it f 

A. Yes. (Same answer as to preceding question.) 
Q. 7. How would you commence to key up a 

Mogul or ten-wheel engine ? 

A. Put the engine on the center on the side I 
was working on ; slack all the keys on that side, then 
key up, commencing with the main key. 

Q. 8. If pound is in the wedges, can you set 
them up and get them right the first trial f 

A. Yes. 

O. 9. How do you do this ? 

A. By pinching the wheels away from the wedges, 
screwing up the loose wedge, then trying if the box 
slides freely without shake ; then slacking off a trifle 
to keep the wedge from sticking when warm. 

Q. 10. Will an engine pound if pedestal-bolts 
are loose f Why ? 

A. Yes, because the pedestal works loose and 
draws down the wedge. 

Q. it. When wedge-bolts are broken, how do 
you keep the wedge in position ? 

A. With a suitable chock or block between the 
pedestal and the wedge-bottom, and one above the 
wedge. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 365 

Q. 12. If follower-bolts are loose, will it make a 
pound f 

A. See page 324. 

Q. 13. How do you detect this trouble? 

A. By listening as the crosshead passes the center 
when the engine is running shut off. 

Q. 1 4. How do you remedy it ? 
A. By removing the cylinder-head and tightening 
the loose bolt. 

Q. 15. If cylinder-packing is blowing through, 
how do you tell which side it is on ? 
A. See page 320. 

Q. 1 6. Will steam come out of both cylinder- 
cocks at the same time on the same side ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. 17. If valve is cut and blowing, can you 
locate the trouble ? 
A. Yes ; see page 321. 

Q. 18. And which side it is on ? 
A. Yes ; see page 321. 

Q. 1 9. Will steam come into cylinder if valve is 
tight and stands in the middle of its travel — that 
is, covering both steam-ports ? 

A. Yes ; see page 321. 

Q. 20. Can you locate the trotcble if steam-pipe 
is leaking ? How ? 

A. Yes. There will be a hard blow all the time in 
the firebox even when shut off, particularly with 



366 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

open fire-door. It may be more distinctly noticed 
when the reverse-lever is on the center and the 
throttle wide open. 

Q. 21. If exhaust gets out of square on the trip, 
what does it indicate ? 

A. Slipped eccentric, loose strap-bolts or strap- 
rods, broken valve-yoke, or bent rocker-arm. 

Q. 22. Can you locate the trouble, whether it is 
a slipped eccentric, loose bolts in the strap, eccentric- 
rod loose on the strap, or broken valve-yoke ? 
How? 

A. Yes ; see page 318. 

Q. 23. Is there anything else not mentioned that 
would affect the sound of exhaust ? 

A. Loose exhanst-pipe, one exhaust- tip gone 
(where there are by rights two), bent lifter-arm, loose 
rocker- box. 

Q. 24. Can you set a slipped eccentric ? How? 

A. See pages 141, 169, 325. 

Q. 25. How do you tell which one is slipped? 

A. See page 325. 

Q. 26. How are they kept in their places on the 
axle ? 

A. See page 173. 

Q. 2 7. How do you get the engine on the exact 
center ? 

A. In the case of an old engine with worn guides, 
by moving the wheels until the crosshead reaches 
the end of the travel-marks on the guides. Where 
there are no such marks, as with a new engine, or 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 367 

one with guides newly planed and scraped, oy pinch- 
ing the wheels over until the crosshead stops and re- 
verses its movements ; scribing this place and pinch- 
ing again past the center, in the other direction, to 
be sure that the crosshead does not go further 
than the scriber-mark. When the crosshead is at 
its travel- end, the engine is on the center. 

Q. 28. Which center is most convenient to set 
eccentric from f 
A. The forward. 

Q. 29. Where do the eccentrics come in relation 
to the crank-pm on that side of the engine ? 

A. The forward-motion one is not quite 90 or a 
quarter-circle back of the crank-pin ; the backing- 
eccentric is not quite 90 ° ahead of the pin. The 
angular distance from the true 90 point is enough to 
allow for valve-lap and for valve-lead, and varies with' 
the amount of lap on the valve and with the lead 
desired. (See pages 141, 169.) 

Q. 30. Where do they come in relation to the 
eccentrics for the same motion on the other side of 
the engine f 

A. Just 90 from them. 

Q. 31. What generally causes eccentrics to slip ? 

A. See page 325. 

Q. 32. How do you move the eccentric back to its 
proper place on the axle f 

A. See pages 169, 325. 

Q. 33. Would you put water on a very hot 
eccentric or strap ? 

A. No. 



368 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. 34. Are all eccentrics made in one piece f 

A. See page 173. 

Q. 35. What do you disconnect, take off and 
block tip in case of a broken eccentric or strap ? 

A. See page 326. 

Q. 36. Can an engine be worked ahead to a 
station with a full train, if back-motion strap is 
broken ? 

A. See page 326. 

Q. 37. If link- hanger or pin is broken ? 

A. See page 328. 

Q. 38. If arm is broken off tumbling-shaft ? 

A. See page 328. 

Q. 39. With a broken reach-rod ? 

A. See page 329 ; also figure 200. 

Q. 40. With a broken link-block pin f 

A. No. 

Q. 41. With broken piston-gland or stud? 

A. Yes. 

Q. 42. What would you do with an engine with 
broken piston ? 

A. See page 315. 

Q. 43. With a broken cy Under -he ad ? 
A. See pages 310, 315. 
Q. 44. With a broken valve-yoke ? 
A. See page 310. 
Q. 45. With broken valve-seat ? 
A. See page 308. 




OUTSIDE VIEW OF SMOKEBOX FRONT 




SECTION THROUGH LEADING WHEEL 



SECTION THROUGH L. P. CYLINDER 

XII Seven-foot "Webb" Eight Wheeled Compound Passenger Locomotive, L. & JN. w. Ky 




Plate 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 369 

Q. 46. With broke7t valve-stem gland f 

A. Take out all the rod-packing except one turn, 
push in the broken gland as far as it will go, and 
screw up the gland-stud nuts. 

Q. 47. When a valve-seat breaks, does it ever do 
any damage to other parts of the engine f 

A. It may break the valve, or bend either the 
valve-rod or the rocker-arm, or may cause breakage 
of the piston or the cylinder-head in case a broken 
piece falls into the cylinder. 

Q. 48. What would you do with top rocker-arm 
broken f 

A. See pages 327, 328. 

Q. 49. How do you fix broken steam-chest if 
steam leaks out badly ? 
A. See page 307. 

Q. 50. How do you keep steam from coming out 
of dry -pipe into broken steam-chest on the differ- 
ent builds of engines on this road ? 

A. Remove the chest-cover, block the steam-inlet 
by wood-filling ; put a board on that; set the valve 
on the board ; plug the inlet with wood ; disconnect 
that side of the engine. 

Q. 51. How and when do you block the cross- 
J 1 en d w hen disc on n ected ? 

A. See pages 311, 314 ; also figure 201. 

Q. 52. How do you keep the packing-rings out 
of the counter-bore ? 

A. By blocking the crosshead. 



37» LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q- 53' Would you take out the cylinder -cock at 
the end the piston is in f 

A. No ; I should block the cylinder-cocks open ; 
disconnecting the cylinder-cock rod if. necessary. 

Q, 54. What would you do if main-rod strap 
or cross head should break f 

A. Seepages 315, 316. 

Q. 55. What is -done if side-rod or back pin 
breaks ? 

A. See page 330. 

Q. 56. Can all four-wheel switch engines be 
run with the side-rods down f 

A. Not those which have the eccentrics on the 
front axle and the main pin on the back wheel. 

Q. 57. Why do you take rods down on the op- 
posite side to that broken ? 

A. To prevent straining. 

Q. 58. What is the effect of sanding the rail 
while engine is slipping, without first shutting off 
steam f 

A. To strain rods and pins up to the danger point. 

Q, 59. Is it good policy to allow sand to run 
from the pipe only? 

A. No. It wrenches the pins and connections. 

Q. 60. How do you block up an engine for a 
broken driving-spring or hanger f 

A. See page 342 ; also figures 202 and 203. 
Q. 6 t . With broken equalizer ? 
A. See page 339. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 371 

Q. 62, With broken engine-truck spring or 



< 9 



er e 



hang 

A. See page 339. 

Q. 63. With broken intermediate equalizer on 
Mogul? 

A. Block between the cross equalizer and the boil- 
er ; remove the broken parts. 

Q. 64. With broken engine-truck center-put on 
Mogul, what is to be done ? 

A. Jack up the front end of the engine and that of 
the long equalizer; put a car-brass between the 
equalizer-end and the truck-wheel axle, and run home 
slowly. 

Q. 65. What do you do when a tire breaks and 
comes off the wheel on standard engine ? 

A. See page 337. 

Q. 66. With front tire on Mogul or ten-wheel 
engine ? 

A. Same as for preceding question. 

Q. 67. Main tire on Mogul? 

A. Same as for preceding question. 

Q. 68. With the back tire on a Mogul? 

A. Block up both back wheels as far as possible 
(after taking down back rods); block on top of 
both main driving-boxes and below the cellars, in 
boxes that are up on blocks; and between the engi tie- 
deck and the tender draw-bar. 

Q. 69. With both back tires on Mogul? 
A. Same answer as for preceding question. 



372 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. 70. With the back tire or back driver broken 
off, how do you fix engine so you can back arotind 
curves, when necessary ? 

A . For a standard ( eight- wheeled) engine take down 
coupling-rods and proceed as in case 68. For a Mo- 
gul, put a block between the engine and the tender 
on the side next the inside of the curve. 

Q. 71. At what points is weight of engine car- 
ried when springs and equalizers are in good 
order f 

A. See page 188. 

Q. 72. Where is the weight carried when 
blocked 2tp over the forward driving-box ? 

A. The same answer as in the preceding case, on a 
good track. 

Q. 73. When blocked up over the back driving- 
box ? 

A. Over that box. 

Q. 74. What is the best material to use to block 
between driving-box and frame ? 

A. See page 343 ; also figure 202. 

Q. 75 . If driving-box or brass breaks so it is cut- 
ting the axle badly, what can you do to relieve it? 

A. Relieve it of some of its weight by a wedge, 
and blocking between the spring-saddle and the 
frame. See figure 204. 

Q. 76. Do you consider it an engineer s duty to 
have suitable hard-wood blocks on his engine to use 
in case of a break-down f 

A. See page 290. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 373 

Q. 7 7. How do you block ttp or get to a side 
track with broken engine-trtick wheel or axle ? 

A. See page 338; also figure 204. 

Q. 78. With Mogul ; with broken engine-truck 
wheel or axle, what wotild you do ? 

A. Remove the broken wheel and chain the 
engine- truck to the engine- frame ; or else remove it 
and block on top of the engine-boxes. 

Q. 79. With broken tender-truck wheel or axle, 
what would yotL do ? 

A. See page 339; also figure 205. 

Q, 80. Is it necessary to take down the main rod 
if frame is broken between the cylinder and for- 
ward driving-box ? 

A. If the opening of the frame at each stroke 
caused or permitted the piston to strike the cylinder- 
head, that side should be disconnected. 

Q. 81. Would you take down either rod if 
frame is broken between forward and back driving- 
boxes ? 

A. No. 

Q. 82. Where is the frame fastened solid to the 
other part of engine f 

A. See page 178. 

Q. 83. Would you disconnect an engine for a 
broken gtiide? 

A. Yes. 

Q. 84. How do you handle an engine if throttle 
sticks open> or dry pipe joint leaks so steam 
cannot be shtct off from engine f 



374 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. See page 295. 

O. 85. What will you do if throttle is discon- 
nected and remains shut ? 
A. See page 296. 

Q. 86. If a crank-pin brass gets hot so the bab- 
bitt melts, would you cool it off with water 
before all the babbitt comes out ? 

A. No. 

Q. 87. Can you take out a tender-truck brass 
and replace it with a new one ? How ? 

A. Yes. By taking off the oil-box cover, and all 
the packing, jacking up the box, removing the wedge 
or step and the brass, putting in the new brass, then 
the wedge or step on top of it ; next taking out the 
jack and re-packing the box. 

O. 88. An engine-truck brass ? 

A. Yes. I should remove the cellar, jack up the 
box at the corner, slide out the old brass and slip in 
the new, then remove the jack and put in the cellar. 

Q. 89. When brass does not wear an even thick- 
ness at both ends, is it apt to run hot? Why? 

A. Yes. By reason of one end getting more weight 
than the other. 

Q. 90. How often do you examine the ash-pan, 
grates and dampers? 

A. At the end of each trip. 

Q. 91. What are your duties after cutting off 
from train at the end of trip ? 

A. To inspect the engine all over, and report in 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 375 

the regular requisition-book all repairs or adjustments 
needed, that I cannot or should not make myself. 

Q. 92. What are your duties in case of wreck 
when your engine is off the track ? 

A. First, to have the train protected front and rear; 
then to inspect the damage, and if it cannot be reme- 
died by the force at my command, to report in detail 
to the proper official. 

Q. 93. If front end is broken, but flues and 
steam-pipes in good order, how could you make 
repairs on it to run in f 

A. By boarding up the front end, using the studs 
if possible, and if these are not available, by bracing. 

Q. 94. Do you understand the principle on 
which an injector works ? 

A. Its essential principle is to some extent the 
same as that which governs the blower, that of in- 
duced currents. The friction of one stream or material 
causes the flow of another , but in the boiler-feeding 
injector the momentum of the jet of steam at high 
pressure (which is considerably greater than that of 
a stream of water at the same temperature and 
pressure, through the same orifice) is utilized to 
force the warm water caused by the mixture of cold 
water and steam against the hot water in the boiler. 
In other words, the steam at a given pressure and 
temperature would have a certain velocity (about 2000 
feet per second under ordinary locomotive-boiler 
pressures) , while water at the same pressure would 
have much less (only about 150 feet). So we 
have a steam- jet tending to flow in one direc- 
tion at 2000 feet and a stream of hot water tending to 
oppose it, with a velocity of only 150 feet. This being 



376 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

the case, the steam is able to force the water back 
into the boiler and to enter against its pressure, and 
also to carry with it a volume of water which it had first 
drawn along by induction and then heated ; besides 
overcoming the friction in the pipes. 

Q. 95. What are the different builds of in- 
jectors on this road? 

A.— 

Q. 96. What is the combining-tube f 

A A flared tube in which the streams of feed- water 
and condensed steam may mingle before passing on 
to the feed-pipe. 

Q. 97. If sand or dirt gets in the passages \ will 
the injector work f 

A. No. 

Q. 98. In case an injector will not work when 
it has always been reliable before, where would 
you look for the trouble in the first place f 

A. In the tank, strainers and all supply-pipe con- 
nections. 

O. 99. If it will not prime at all ? 

A. Then I should suspect an overflow- valve stuck 
down, or a combining-tube broken, or the inside tubes 
out of line. 

Q. 100. If it primes well, and breaks when 
opened wide, where would you expect to find the 
trouble ? 

A. In insufficient water-supply for steam of the 
temperature of that supplied by the boiler. 

Q. 1 01. When boiler-check sticks tp or leaks 
back as water comes from the boiler, how do 
you remedy it? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 377 

A. By jarring on the check-box with a piece of 
wood. 

Q. 102. Is there more than one check-valve 
between the injector and boiler ? 

A. Sometimes ; not usually. 

Q. 103. Will an injector work unless all the 
steam is condensed by the supply of water 9 

A. No. 

Q. 104. Will it sometimes work better if 
steam-throttle on boiler is shut off so as to 
supply only steam enough to work the injector ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. 105. Will an engine steam any better if 
this is done? 

A. Yes. 

Q. 106. How should an engine be pumped — 
continuously from beginning to end of trip, or 
would you shut the injector off when pulling out 
after each stop ? 

A. See page yy. 

Q. 107. Will an injector take water from 
the tank if the air cannot get into the tank as 
fast as the water goes out ? 

A. No. 

Q. 108. Is there any advantage in having the 
boiler moderately full when pulling out of a sta- 
tion or when starting a hard pidl for a hill? 

A. Yes. 

Q. 109. What makes a boiler foam? 

A. See pages 87, 88. 



^ 7 8 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. no. How do you remedy it? 
A. Seepages 304, 305. 

Q. in. What is the danger when boiler foams 
badly ? 

A. Burning the crown- sheet, cutting the valves, 
breaking the piston-packing rings, or knocking out 
cylinder-heads. 

Q. 112. Does water remain at the same level 
when the throttle is shut off? 
A. No. 

Q. 113. What do you do in case the water 
drops too low f 

A. See pages 305, 306. 

Q. 114. What is the least depth of water on 
the crown-sheet that is safe? 

A. One gage. 

Q. 115. How much water on the crown-sheet 
with one, two and three gages respectively ? 

A. Usually the gages are three inches above the 
sheet and between each other. 

Q. 116. Do you consider it safe to run an 
engine with one or more of the gage-cocks stopped 
up? 

A. No. 

Q. 1 1 j. Is the water-glass safe to run by if 
the water-line in the glass is not moving up and 
down when the e7igine is in motion ? 

A. No. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 379 

Q. 118. Under what circumstances can it be 
used to show height of water if you cannot see 
the top line of water in glass f 

A. By closing the top cock, or by suddenly open- 
ing out the throttle. 

Q. 119, If gage-cocks are stopped up, or the 
water-glass cock filled up so water does not come 
into glass freely, what is your ditty ? 

A. To report the matter at once and not take out 
the engine. 

Q. 120. Is any more water used when an 
engine foams than whe7i water carries well f 

A. Yes. 

Q. 121. What is the effect of using black oil in 
the boiler and through the injectors f 

A. It is apt to soften hard scale and to facilitate 
the injector working. 

Q. 122. Would you use valve-oil or lard oil 
for the same purpose f 

A. No ; it would cause foaming. 

Q. 123. What damage does it do to an engine 
to work water through the cylinders ? 

A. Often breaks out packing- rings or knocks out 
cylinder-heads. 

Q. 124. Is it a good plan to let an engine slip 
at such times f 

A. No. 

Q. 125. Is it liable to break the cylinder -pack- 
ing rings or cylinder-heads f 

A. Yes. 



380 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. 126. In case you get out of water on the 
road, what would you do ? 

A. Either bank the fire or dump it, as the case 
might be, — depending on the distance I would have 
to be towed to the next water-station, and the time 
which would elapse before I got there. 

Q. 127. When an engine dies on the road in 
the winter, what will you do f 

A. Disconnect so as to be towed in, empty the ten- 
der and boiler and break all joints at places likely to 
have "pockets" of water, which have no pet-cocks 
or other appliances for draining them. 

Q. 128. How will you Jill the boiler with water 
and get the engine alive, when fire is drawn on 
account of low water f 

A. Remove the whistle or the safety-valve, and 
fill through the opening where it was ; using 
pails unless there are small hose facilities. 

Q. 129. Can an engine be pumped by towing 
her with another engine ? How ? 

A. Yes. By closing all openings into the boiler 
except those from the tender, opening throttle and 
injectors, and putting the reverse-lever in the motion 
corresponding to the direction in which she is being 
towed . The main pistons will remove the air from the 
boiler, and water will flow in from the tender to supply 
its place. 

Q. 1 30. Can she be filled up with hot water 
from a live engine, if you have a hose and suit- 
able connections f 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 381 

A, Yes. Connecting the hose from the injector of 
the live engine to the check- valve of the dead one. 

Q. 131. How do you take care of a boiler 
with old and tender or leaky flues ? 

A. By feeding regularly, only when running; 
keeping an even bright fire and regular steam-press- 
ure, and avoiding sudden chilling of the fire-box 
sheets and the flues. 

Q. 132. If the top of stack is covered after the 
fire is cleaned and engine is in the house y to 
keep cold air from drawing in and up through 
flues, will it help to keep them tight ? 

A. Yes, and is to be recommended. 

Q. 133. Are you familiar with the working of 

the htbricator ? 

A.— 

Q. 134. Explain how the oil gets from the cup 
to steam-chest and cylinders. 

A. When the steam, water and feed- valves are open, 
and the ' ( sight-feed ' ' glasses full of water, oil will 
pass upwards through the water, which is heavier 
than oil, until the steam-current from the equalizing- 
tubes takes it and delivers it as fine spray through the 
small nozzle in the side of the cup, and thence to the 
steam- chest. 

Q. 135. What about the small check-valves over 
sight-feed glasses — what are they for ? 

A. They act by reason of the steam-pressure from 
the equalizing-valves, in case the sight-feed glass 
breaks. 



382 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. 136. Are there any other valves between 
lubricator and steam-chest ? Why not ? 

A. No. They would prevent the oil-spray from 
reaching the steam-chest. 

Q. 137. After filling the oil-cup, what valve do 
you open first ? Why f 

A. The water- valve, to let the oil expand. 

Q. 138. If you should fill the cup with cold oil 
while in the house, would you open the water- 
valve or leave it closed f 

A. Open it. 

Q. 1 39. How often should lubricator be cleaned 

out ? Why f 

A. That depends on the kind of oil being fed ; from 
one to twelve weeks ; the poorer the oil the of tener 
cleaning is needed. 

Q. 1 40. Should sight-feed glass or feed-valve on 
one side become broken or inoperative, can the sight- 
feed on the other side be used ? 

A. That depends on the style of lubricator used ; 
some will " cross-feed," some will not. 

Q. 141. Will any of the lubricators in service 
"cross-feed" that is, feed to the cylinder on the 
opposite side of engine ? 

A. Same answer as to No. 140. 

Q. 142. Explain the "cross-feeding''' difficulty 
as experienced in some of the lubricators in service. 

A. There are two equalizing- tubes, one for each 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 383 

side ; and in case one gets stopped up the other can- 
not send oil to that side. 

Q. 143. Is there a possibility of losing all the 
oil out of the lubricator after shutting off both 
bottom-feeds to steam-chest, when engine is allowed 
to cool down? 

A. Yes. It may be drawn through when the steam 
in the boiler condenses and the external air-pressure 
tends to force oil from the lubricator into the vacuum 
thus formed ; but this can only take place if the steam-, 
the water- and the feed- valves of the lubricator are 
left open, which should not be the case. 



The foregoing questions are intended as a guide for 
Examiner, or Examining Board, to be governed by. Can- 
didates should be asked questions all around the regular 
ones as laid down in this list, to find out what the candi- 
date knows. 



APPENDIX B. 

FURTHER MATTER CONCERNING 

COMPOUND ENGINES 

INCLUDING DESCRIPTIONS OF ENGINES, 

AND INSTRUCTIONS WHAT TO DO 

IN CASE OF BREAK-DOWNS. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



387 



THE BALDWIN (VAUCLAIN) COMPOUND.* 

Q. Describe the second combined starting-valve 
and cylinder-cock used on the Baldwin ( Vau- 
clain) compound, and replacing that first used, 
and shown on page 101. 




Fig. 212. Baldwin (Vauclain) Combined Starting- Valve 
and Cylinder-Cock. 

A. As shown in figures 212 and 213, there is a cast- 
ing in which are two taper plugs P, P, one con- 
trolling the high-pressure cylinder-cock and the 
steam for starting, and the other controlling the 
low-pressure cylinder-cock. These plugs are held in 
place by springs S and controlled by an arm A oper- 
ated by a lever in the cab. 



*Conti lined from pages 94, 266 and 285. 



388 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

In position i of the lever, as in figure 212, the 
starting- valve is open to admit live steam to the low- 
pressure cylinder, and the cylinder- cocks are open 
to the atmosphere. 

In lever position 2, indicated by a dotted line, all 
the passages would be closed ; and in position 3, also 




Fig. 213. Baldwin (Vauclain) Combined Starting-Valve 
and Cylinder-Cock. 

indicated by a dotted line, the starting- valve only 
would be open to admit live steam to the low-press- 
ure cylinder. 

Q. Describe in detail the operation of the com- 
bined cylinder-cock and starting valve ? 

A. As shown in figure 212, when the valve is in 
starting position, live steam passes across from that 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 389 

end of the high-pressure cylinder which is receiving 
steam from the boiler, to the other end of the same 
cylinder, and thence through the main valve to the 
low-pressure cylinder; putting the high-pressure 
piston head very nearly in equilibrium but giving the 
low-pressure cylinder nearly full boiler pressure. The 
valve has two taper plugs, one controlling the high- 
pressure cylinder-cock and the other the low ; both 
being held in place by springs and controlled by an 
arm from a lever in the cab. When the valve lets 
steam through to the low-pressure cylinder direct, 
in starting, the cylinder-cocks are open. In a second 
position all passages are closed ; in a third, the only 
opening is to let live steam to the low-pressure 
cylinder. 

Q. In a Vauclain (or Baldwin) compound, 
what is the proportion between the areas of the 
high aizd the low-pressure cylinders ? 

A. Very nearly one to three. 

Q. In the Vauclain compound, how is the 

vacuum in the low-pressure cylinders, when the 
engine is running with steam shut off, relieved ? 

A. By air- valves in the cylinder ends. 



ACCIDENTS WITH THE BALDWIN COMPOUND. 

Q. In case of a broken or disconnected main 
\palve-rod on a Baldwin compound, what must be 
done ? 



390 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. Put the valve on the center of the seat so as to 
cover all the ports on that side ; disconnect the main- 
rod and block the crosshead as in directions for non- 
compound engines. 

Q. In case a low-pressure cylinder- head on a 
Baldwin compound is broken out, can the engine 
be run on both sides without disconnecting ? 

A. Yes. 

Q. What would be the course of the exhaust 
in sue J i case ? 

A. On the damaged side it would pass through 
the open end of the cylinder into the air without 
going into the stack. 

Q. If the engine were run without disconnect- 
ing in this case, what difficulty might be met ? 

A. The exhaust escaping in front of the cab might 
obstruct the engineer's view, if it was the right-hand 
cylinder that was disabled. 

Q. In case of the piston-head on a Baldwin 
compound breaking away from the crosshead and 
going out of the cylinder, what would be the course 
of the steam f 

A. It would go into the air through both ends of 
the high-pressure cylinder through the open ends of 
the low-pressure cylinder. 

Q. How many exhausts are there to a Baldwin 
compound per wheel-revolution f 

A. Normally, four. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 391 

Q. How many would there be when both low- 
pressure cylinder-heads were broken out ? 
A. Only two. 

Q. Could a Baldwin compound be run with 
both high-pressure piston-heads removed f 

A. Yes, if the stuffing-box was made steam-tight; 
in this case the steam- valves would supply live steam 
direct to the low-pressure cylinders. 

Q. In this case what would be the course of the 
steam f 

A. From the chest into the high-pressure cylinder, 
then through the main steam- valve into the low- 
pressure cylinder at nearly boiler pressure. 

Q. When a main-rod of the Baldwin compound 
is broken or disconnected, what should be done ? 

A. The valve should be blocked in the center of 
the seat so as to cover all ports ; and the crosshead 
blocked. 

Q. How may the valve best be blocked f 

A. By pieces of wood on each side of the small 
crosshead. 

Q. What would be the effect of breakage of the 
small equalizing-valve in the end of the main steam- 
valve oj some of the earlier Vauclain compounds f 

A. To convert that side into a high-pressure 
engine having a piston the diameter of the low- 
pressure cylinder. 

Q. How should the cylinder-cocks stand when 
the engine is running not under steam f 



392 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. Open, to prevent the low-pressure piston from 
making a vacuum in the high-pressure cylinder and 
causing the latter' s packing to be picked up by the 
piston-rod. 



THE BROOKS ( PLAYER ) TANDEM COMPOUND. 

Q. In the Brooks {Player) four-cylinder tan- 
dem compound, what is the arrangement of the 
cylinders f 

A. There is a structure (see figure 215) containing 
the low-pressure cylinder and saddle and the final ex- 
haust-passage and the live- steam passage connecting 
with the boiler, to this is also attached the low-pressure 
steam-chest ; this cylinder structure being right and 
left and interchangeable with that on a single-expan- 
sion locomotive. On the front end of this low-press- 
ure cylinder- structure is attached another structure 
containing the high-pressure cylinder and its steam- 
chest, having connection with the live-steam passage 
of the low-pressure cylinder-saddle by a connecting- 
pipe attached thereto. The rear end of the high- 
pressure steam- chest is enlarged to form a receiver, 
and is connected to the front end of the low-pressure 
steam-chest. 

Q. Describe the valves and the means of operat- 
ing them ? 

A. The low-pressure steam- chest (figure 214) con- 
tains an ordinary balanced slide- valve with external 
admission-edges and internal exhaust-edges, this valve 
being operated as in a simple engine, by a yoke. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



393 



This yoke is connected to the top arm of a rocker ,> 
pivoted in the receiver, the opposite end of the rocker 
being connected to the high-pressure valve (which 
latter is of the annular piston type, with internal 



,T0 STARTING VALVE 







■-- 2 RELIEF VA^VE 



Fig. 214. Brooks (Player) Tandem Compound. 

admission-edges and external exhaust-edges, and has 
a reverse motion from that of the low-pressure flat 
slide. 



394 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. What provision is there for starting, or for 
grade-climbing ? 

A. There is an automatic reducing starting- valve 
(figure 215) which admits reduced-pressure live steam 
to the low-pressure cylinders when starting, or at 
other times when it is desired to increase the engine- 
power. This staiting-valve is operated by the 
reverse-lever in the cab so as to admit steam only when 
the latter is in full forward or full backward gear. 

Q. Describe the course cf the steam ? 

A. Steam is admitted through the high-pressure 
steam-chest and connecting-pipes and passages to the 
cavity of the annular piston valve for the high-press- 
ure cylinder, thence through the ports into the high- 
pressure cylinder, and operates on the high-pressure 
piston. The exhaust steam from the high-pressure 
passes through the port into the end of the high- 
pressure steam- chest, thence through the annular 
high-pressure valve into the receiver and low-pressure 
steam- chest, where it is admitted to and exhausted 
from the low-pressure cylinder in the ordinary 
manner. 

Q. What special arrangement of the rocker- 
arm is there f 

A. It is so proportioned that the travel of the two 
valves on each side is different ; giving the two valves 
different travels and different points of cut-off, and 
permitting the use of internal exhaust-edges for the 
high-pressure valve, thus lessening the cooling of the 
entering steam. 

Q. What is the usual cylinder-ratio f 



395 




Fig. 215. Brooks (Player) 
Tandem Compound. 




396 locomotive: catechism. 

A. i to 2.37. 

Q. What are the ustial valve-elements ? 

A. The high-pressure or piston valve with 4 inches 
travel has ^ inch steam lap, 1-16 inch exhaust clear- 
ance and no lead ; the low-pressure or plain balanced 
flat slide-valve has 7 inches travel, finch steam lap, \ 
inch exhaust clearance and 1-10 inch lead. 

Q. Why say "steam lap" and u ex hazes t 
clearance ?" 

A. Because in the case of the high-pressure valve 
the steam edges are inside. 

Q. In w hat position are the valves in the illus- 
trations (Figures 214 and 215) f 

A. Intentionally misplaced in central position or 
mid- travel, for the purpose of showing their laps ; not 
in the position corresponding to stroke-end. 

Q. What would be the real position of the 
high-pressure valve with the pistons in the front 
end of the cylinders, at stroke-end, as shown in the 
illustrations ? 

A. It would have its forward steam edge "line 
and line" with the inner edge of the front end port, 
and be ready to move further ahead ; the back end 
port would be open by an amount equal to the steam 
lap, plus the clearance, or 9-16 inch. 

0. Where would the low-pressure valve be ? 

A. \ inch to the rear of mid-position, which would 
bring its forward steam edge 1-10 inch back of the 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 397 

front edge of the front end port ; and it would be 
ready to move further back. 

Q. If a forward movement of \ inch {equal to 
the steam lap) brings the high-pressure valve " line 
and line" and the low-pressure valve has f-4 as 
much valve-travel, why does not this give the low- 
pressure valve j-4. times \=^ inch movement back 
of mid-position y and cause J — \ == \ inch valve-lead? 

A. Because of the angular movement of the links 
connecting the valve-yokes with the rocker, while 
the entire travel of the low-pressure valve is (barring 
lost motion) exactly J as great as that of the high- 
pressure valve, it does not follow that while the latter 
makes the first J inch of its travel the former makes 
T yinch. 

Q. In full gear, in which cylinder is cut-off 
the later ? 

A. In the high-pressure cylinder. 

Q. When hooked up, in which cylinder is cut- 
off the later ? 

A. In the low-pressure cylinder. 



THE PITTSBURG COMPOUND. 

Q. Describe the two-cylinder compound of the 
Pittsburg Locomotive Works {Colvin-Wightman 
sy stein) f 

A. Referring to figures 216 and 217, the essential 
features are 

(1). An intercepting controlling-valve of the 



398 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



piston or spool type, operated either through a rod 
and lever by the engineman or by a steam-actuated 
device also in the cab. This puts the high-pressure 
exhaust in communication with either the receiver or 
an independent exhaust-nozzle, according as the 
engineman wishes to run compound or non-com- 
pound ; in the latter case opening a passage to the 
receiver from 




Fig. 216. Pittsburg (Colvin-Wightman) Compound, Working 

Single-Expansion. 

(2). An automatic reducing- valve having a poppet 
at one end of a stem and a piston at the other, in 
communication with the live-steam passage and with 
disk-areas proportionate to those of the two cylin- 
ders — the larger one towards the receiver. This 
reducing- valve automatically prevents the low-press- 
ure and the high-pressure cylinders, when running 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



399 



non-compound, exerting unequal pressures on their 
respective crosshead-pins and connections. By its 
action in automatically opening between the live- 
steam passage and the receiver and reducing the 
pressure, the low-pressure and the high-pressure 
cylinders have pressures practically inversely pro- 
portionate to their areas. 




Fig. 217. Pittsburg (Colvin-Wightman) Compound, Working 
Compound. 

Q. When working compound, what is the posi- 
tion of the reducing-valve f 

A. In the forward position, as shown in figure 217, 
so as to cut off live steam from the receiver and the 
exhaust-pipe from the high-pressure cylinder to the 
independent exhaust-nozzle, and send the high-press- 
ure exhaust into the receiver. 



400 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. When working ' ' simple " (or non-compound) 
where does the exhaust from the high-pressure 
cylinder go ? 

A. Through an independent exhaust-passage and 
nozzle, as in figure 216. 

Q. Can the engine be run either co7npound or 
non-compound at will of engineman ? 

A. Yes. The position of the intercepting- valve 
regulates that ; and the change from either to the 
other can be made either when the engine is stand- 
ing or when it is running at speed. 

Q. What are the relative horse-powers of the 
two sides, working compound at five miles per 
hour, when the cylinder-ratio is 1 to 2.3 f 

A. Under certain conditions 52 per cent, of the 
horse-power is in the low-pressure cylinder. 

Q. What are the relative horse-powers of the 
two sides, working compound at 20 miles per hour, 
when the cylinder -ratio is 1 to 2.3 f 

A. Under the same conditions of pressure etc., as 
in the last answer, 52^ per cent, of the horse-power 
is in the low-pressure cylinder. 

Q. What are the relative horse-powers of one 
of these eiigines with a cylinder -ratio of 1 to 2.3. 
when working simple and when working compound 
at a speed of five miles per hour ? 

A. Under certain conditions, 24 percent, more 
horse-power when working simple than when work- 
ing compound. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



401 



Q. What are the relative horse-powers with 
cylinder -ratio i to 2.3 when working simple and 
when working compound, at 20 miles per hour ? 

A. It is not practicable to run this compound at 
2,0 miles per hour as a simple engine. 




INTERCEPTING VALyEiSTEIVT 



Fig. 218. Reversing-device, Pittsburg (Colvin-Wightman) 
Compound. 

Q. Describe the reversing device in the cab ? 

A. As shown in figure 218 there is an air or steam 
reversing- cylinder actuated by the reversing lever as 
follows : when the lever is down, or at full stroke, 
at either end, the intercepting- valve is in the posi- 
tion indicated by figure 216, permitting admission of 
live steam to the receiver ; but the moving of the 
reverse-lever one or more notches opens a valve 



4 o2 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

which admits pressure to the reversing- appliance, and 
the intercepting valve is moved to the position 
shown by figure 217. The dropping back of the lever 
to full stroke again changes the valve, and the engine 
is thrown into simple as before. 

Q. With this attachment can the engine be 
worked simple at early cut-offs, or compoitnd at 
late cut-offs f 

A. No. 



ACCIDENTS WITH THE R. I. LOCOMOTIVE WORKS 
COMPOUND. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken 
low-presstire valve-rod ? 

A. Block the valve on that side, in the center ; 
open the receiver exhaust-valve to the exhaust-noz- 
zle ; run with the high-pressure side after disconnect- 
ing the low-pressure main-rod, as in a simple engine. 

Q. In this case, why would not the live steam 
from the reducing-valve escape into the receiver 
and thence into the air ? 

A. Because there would be no pressure in the re- 
ceiver, as the live steam would be held in the low- 
pressure steam-chest. 

Q. What should be done in case of a broken or 
disconnected low-pressure main-valve f 
A. As for a broken valve-rod. 

Q. With a broken high-pressure valve-rod or 
main-rod, what should be done ? 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 403 

A . The high-pressure steam- valve should be blocked 
in the center of the seat to cover all ports ; and the 
engine run with the low-pressure side only. 

Q. How does the live steam get to the low- 
pressure chest in this case ? 

A. Through the reducing- valve and intercep ting- 
valve, the latter of which will hold the steam in the 
low-pressure chest. 

Q. In case of broken or cracked piston-head of 
the intercep ting-valve which closes the receiver to 
the low-pressure chest, how could the engine be run? 

A. By removing the back head of the intercep ting- 
valve oil-cylinder, blocking the intercepting- valve in 
the compound position, and replacing the head. 

Q. Why could not the receiver exhaust-valve be 
opened in this case and the engine run high-press- 
ure? 

A. Because the hole in the intercepting- valve would 
permit live steam to escape to the air through the 
low-pressure chest. 

Q. What would happen if the middle piston- 
head of the intercep ting-valve was broken out or 
cracked ? 

A. The live steam would put the intercepting- valve 
into the compounding position, closing the receiver, 
letting live steam to the low-pressure cylinder, and 
putting a heavy back-pressure against the high-press- 
ure piston-head. 

Q. How could this back-pressure be overcome ? 



404 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. By opening the receiver exhaust-valve, closing 
the intercepting- valve, and running high-pressure. 

Q. Why should the inter 'cep ting-valve be closed 
in this case f 

A. To keep live steam from passing through the 
receiver into the exhaust-pipe. 

0. In case of a broken or cracked receiver ', 
what sho?dd be done ? 

A. The receiver-exhaust should be opened and the 
engine run high-pressure. 



THE RICHMOND (MEUJN) COMPOUND. 

Q. Describe the intercepting arrangements of 
the Richmond Locomotive & Machine Works 
(Melliii) two-cylinder compotmd engine? 

A. As shown in figures 219 to 222 inclusive, there 
is an intercepting- valve, IV, a reducing- valve, RV, 
and an emergency- valve, BV; all in the same axial 
line. 

The intercepting- valve I V, which is of the unbal- 
anced double-poppet type, controls the passage of 
steam to the low-pressure cylinder from the receiver 
R. It bears on its stem a piston P which plays in a 
dash-pot to prevent slamming; also a sleeve RV, 
serving as a reducing-valve. 

This latter has lengthwise motion on the stem of 
the intercepting- valve, while playing steam-tight in 
a bored cavity T as well as on the stem of the inter- 
cepting- valve IV. It has on the end next the inter- 
cepting- valve an enlarged portion which plays steam- 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



405 



tight in an enlarged bore Q. The function of this 
reducing- valve R V is to admit live steam at reduced 
pressure from the passage C (which is in connection 
with the dry-pipe) to the low-pressure cylinder through 
the passage G. 

The emergency- valve BV is a plain, bevel-seated 
wing- valve, controlling an opening to the main ex- 
haust from a chamber J, which is in communication 
with the receiver through small holes J in the small 




Fig. 219. Richmond (Mellin) Compound. Position in Starting 
at Maximum Pressure in Steam-Chest. 

disk of the intercepting- valve I V. The emergency- 
valve is normally closed to the main exhaust by a 
spring, aided by the receiver- pressure in J. It may 
be opened by the engineman by admitting steam at 
full boiler pressure through the three-way cock W, 
in the cab. 

Q. Where is the receiver ? 
A. In the smoke-box. 



406 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



Q. What is the action in starting automatically 9 

A. Steam from the boiler goes to trie high-pressure 
cylinder in the ordinary way; also to the port C 
through a 2j-inch steam-pipe connected with the 
dry-pipe. When the throttle is opened, there is no 
pressure in the receiver R, and the pressure on the 



FROM DRY PIPE 




Fig. 220. Richmond (Mellin) Compound. Position in 
Starting Automatically. 

shoulder B of the reducing- valve RV moves the re- 
ducing- valve, and with it the intercepting- valve, to 
the right (as shown in figure 219), closing the receiver 
R, and letting reduced-pressure steam into the low- 
pressure steam-chest G. 

The end B of the sleeve R V being about twice that 
of the shoulder E, half of the boiler-pressure then 
moves this sleeve to the left, cutting off the access of 
steam from port C and equalizing the total pressure 
on the two pistons, by giving the low-pressure piston 
a proportionately lower pressure per square inch At 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



407 



say 1 J revolutions pressure which has accumulated in 
the receiver R, by reason of the exhaust from the 
high-pressure cylinder, acts on the large face of the 
intercepting- valve IV, and moves it to the left, as 
shown in figure 221, carrying with it the sleeve or re- 
ducing- valve RV, and thus opening a straight con- 
nection between the high-pressure exhaust-passage 
and the low-pressure steam-chest, while permanently 
cutting off live steam from the port C. 




iSzi 1 J 



Fig. 221. Richmond (Mellin) Compound. Position in Working 
Comoound. 



Q. What is the action in starting on grades, 
or elsewhere running with maximum power? 

A. The engineman opens the three-way cock W, 
admitting steam behind the piston on the emergency- 
valve E V, and holding it open against its spring S. 
This permits exhaust of the cavity J; and the inter- 
cepting- valve IV, being then unbalanced, moves 
(taking with it the sleeve reducing- valve RV) to the 
right; being aided in this by the steam-pressure on 



4o8 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 



the shoulder K of the sleeve. This gives the high- 
pressure cylinder a separate exhaust around the end 
of the intercepting-valve IV, through the emergency- 
valve EV, into the main exhaust-passage ; the inter- 
cepting-valve IV remaining closed, as there is no< 
accumulation of pressure in the receiver R. 

Q. In this case, whence does the low-pressure- 
cylinder receive steam, arid at what pressure? 



PLACED IN CAB 
TO ATMOSPHERE 




Fig. 222. Richmond (Mellin) Compound, Working 
Single-Expansion. 

A. It gets reduced-pressure steam direct from the 
boiler through the port C and reducing- valve R V, as 
shown in figure 222. 

Q. What are the relative horse-powers of the 
two sides or cylinders, when working compound, af 
say five miles per hour f 

A. With cylinder areas in the ratio of 1 to 7,\ 
about the same in both cylinders. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 409* 

Q. What are the relative horse-powers of the 
two sides at twenty miles an hour, working com- 
pound with cylinder-ratio of 1 to 2^/2 ? 

A. About the same in both cylinders. 

Q. What arc the relative horse-powers of one 
of these engines with a cylinder-ratio of 1 to 2 Y / 2 , 
when working simple a?id compound, at a speed of 
five miles an hour ? 

A. At that speed the horse-power should be about 
30 per cent, more simple than compound. 

Q. What are the relative horse-powers with 
cylmder-ratio of 1 to 2^/2, when working simple 
and compound, at twenty miles per hour? 

A. The builders state that with present propor- 
tion of emergency exhaust running compound should 
give about double the horse-power developed than 
that when running simple, at that speed. 

' ' The percentage of work done in the high- 
pressure cylinder in running compound varies slightly 
with the variations of speed and other circumstances 
as to load and condition of track. For instance, at 20 \" 
cut-off there was a variation of work in the H.-P. 
cylinder from 48.5 to 50.1 per cent, at a varying 
speed of from 38 to 90 turns, averaging 49.12 per 
cent.; and at 18}" cut-off there were cases of 52.3 
per cent, at 78 turns; 51.3 percent, at 198 turns; 
51.8 per cent, at 90 turns ; 49.4 per cent, at 108 turns, 
and 49.93 per cent, at 156 turns, which practically 
makes an average of 50 per cent. The tendency seems 
to be that the percentage of work done in the H.-P. 
cylinder falls slightly with the earlier cut-offs. "* 

■fetter from C J. Mellin, M. E., Sept. 5, 1895. 



410 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

ACCIDENTS TO THE RICHMOND (mELUN) COMPOUND. 

Q. What should be done where it would be 
required to run a Mellin compound with one 
cylinder ? 

A. Block the slide-valve on the disabled side in its 
central position and open the emergency- valve, and 
the engine will rnn one-sided as a simple engine 
under imilar circnmstances. 

Q. If the accident should occur on the low- 
pressure side {the high-pressure side being dis- 
abled), would it be necessary to open the emer- 
gency-valve f 

A. No, but it simplifies the rule, and the emergency- 
valve is in that case perfectly ineffective, either open 
or closed, except that, when open, it prevents un- 
necessary accumulation of pressure in the receiver in 
case of leaking balance strips, etc., of the high-press- 
ure valve. 

ACCIDENTS WITH THE SCHENECTADY COMPOUND. 

Q. In case of breakage or disconnection of the 
high-pressure main-rod, what should be done f 

A. The valve on that side should (if the steam- 
chest is large enough, which it is not in some older 
engines of this type) be put ahead to clear the exhaust- 
port, and the piston blocked in the forward cylinder- 
end. Where the steam-chest is small, and the Allen 
valve is used, high-pressure steam may pass into the 
exhaust through the Allen port if the valve is moved 
to extreme position. Where neither of these plans 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 411 

can be used, the high-pressure valve can be placed to 
cover all ports. The engine should also be run with 
the throttle partly closed. 

Q. Where will the intercepting-valve then 
remain f 

A. In starting position ; supplying steam to the 
low-pressure cylinder through the poppet valve. 

Q. What would be the course of the steam in 
this case f 

A. Through the high-pressure exhaust-port into 
the receiver, and thence to the low-pressure chest ; 
causing the low-pressure cylinder to act high-pressure. 

Q. When the low-pressure cylinder of a Sche- 
nectady compound is running high-pressure, what 
care should be taken f 

A. Not to open the throttle suddenly. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage or 
disconnection of the low-pressure main rod of a 
Schenectady compound? 

A. The piston-head should be blocked in the back 
end of the cylinder, the low-pressure valve should, if 
the chest is long enough, be moved back to clear the 
exhaust-port and cover the back port. 

In some cases the valve will not move back enough 
on all engines to open the exhaust-port. When 
Allen valves are used the exhaust may pass through 
the Allen port, but in other cases it may be necessary 
to take oft the forward cylinder-head and exhaust 
through the front steam-port, or to unscrew the relief- 
valve in front of the cylinder-saddle and exhaust 
through the hole thus made. 



412 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

Q. If either of these methods must be used, 
how could steam be maintained f 

A. With, the blower; and the engine could take 
only a small load. 

Q. How could a free exhaust be obtained in all 
cases f 

A. By taking out the low-pressure valve ; but this 
would involve too much work under ordinary circum- 
stances. 

Q. Why should the exhaust-port be left open f 
A. To give the high-pressure exhaust an outlet. 

O. When a valve-rod breaks on a Schenectady 
compound, what should be done ? 

A. The same as for a broken main-rod on that side ; 
and the main-rod should be disconnected and the 
crosshead blocked. 

Q. In case the inter cepting-valve of a Sche- 
nectady compound had its back head broken out, 
could the engine be run compound ? 

A. Yes, because the steam in the intercepting- valve 
cylinder could not move the valve to the starting 
position, and the high-pressure exhaust would hold it 
in compound position. 

Q. In this case would steam escape from the 
inter cepting-valve cylinder ? 

A. No, unless the lever in the cab was in starting 
position. 

Q. Could high-pressure steam be used in both 




Plate XI. Seven-foot " Webb " Eight Wheeled Compound Passenger Locomotive, L. & N. W. Ry. g£b M cV m b« 

Tubes: Front, 
" Back, 



Number of Tubes— 
! %X ( '° "'I ^' '°" g ' 2 % '■"■ 0ut ?! de Diameter.) 






AND COMBUSTION CHAMBER 

Plate XII. Seven-foot "Webb" Eight Wheeled Compound Passenger Locomotive, L. & N. W. Ry. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISIk 413 

cylinders for starting, if the intercep ting-valve 
cylinder had its back head broken out f 

A. Yes, by- blocking the poppet valve from its seat 
(before opening trie throttle, of course), to let live 
steam into the low-pressure chest. 

Q. Could a Schenectady compound be run with 
the low-pressure cylinder only, if the high-press- 
ure valve covered all its ports ? 

A. Yes, live steam could pass through the inter- 
cepting poppet-valves into the low-pressure chest, if 
the lever in the cab was put in starting position, to 
let steam into the back end of the intercepting-valve 
cylinder ; thus closing the receiver and holding the 
poppet open. 

Q. Why in this case will not the intercepting- 
valve open and close the poppet ? 

A. Because there would be no steam in the re- 
ceiver. 

Q. How else than by blocking could the poppet 
be held open so as to let live steam into the low- 
pressure chest? 

A. By removing the intercepting-valve cylinder 
back head, blocking the piston-head in the forward 
cylinder-end, and replacing the head ; or by doing the 
same thing with the small piston which moves the 
valve, admitting steam to the intercepting-valve 
cylinder. 

Q. What should be done in case of breakage of 
both high-pressure cylinder-heads of a Schenectady 
compound ? 



414 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

A. Put the high-pressure valve in the position to 
cover all its ports ; disconnect on that side. 

Q. What should be done when a front head is 
broken out, taking with it a piece of the seat 
between the steam-port and the front f 

A. The same as when both cylinder-heads are 
broken out. 

Q. What should be done with the valves when 
running with low-pressure cylinder alone f 

A. The same as noted under the first question re- 
lating to accidents with this type of engine (break- 
age or disconnection of the high-pressure main- rod) . 

Q. Is there any steam in the intercepting-valve 
cylinder when the throttle is closed and the dry- 
pipe empty f 

A. No. 

Q, Suppose it is desired to run a Schenectady 
compound high-pressure for some time after start- 
ing, as on an up-grade f 

A. Schenectady compounds cannot be run high 
pressure, except for a revolution or so at starting. 
Shifting the lever in and out of starting position, 
although it would admit some live steam to the low- 
pressure cylinder, would also close the intercepting- 
valve and block the high-pressure cylinder, unless a 
separate exhaust- valve were used ; and there would 
probably be no gain in power over compound working. 



LOCOMOTIVE CATKCHISM. 415 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Q. In a tandem compound engine, where the 
exhaust from a high-pressure cylinder passes into 
a low-pressure cylinder, what is the effective press- 
tire on the piston ? 

A. In pounds per square inch it is that due to the 
degree of expansion of the steam ; but it is counter- 
acted in some measure by the pressure on what is at 
that moment the exhaust side of the high- pressure 
piston; that is, if it is the forward stroke and there 
is a pressure on the back of the low-pressure piston, 
there will be one on the front of the high-pressure 
piston ; so that the total pressure on that side of the 
engine will be found by adding the pressures on the 
backs of the two pistons and taking from the sum 
the sums of the back pressures on the front sides of 
the two pistons. 

Q. How may these pressures be calculated for 
a high and a low-pressure cylinder, when the 
pressure pe? square inch on each side of each pis- 
ton is known f 

A. By multiplying the area of each piston in 
square inches by the pressures on its front and back 
respectively (thus getting four products); then add- 
ing the two products on the front faces and the two 
on the back faces, and taking the difference between 
the sums. 

Q. What is the difference between the four- 
cylinder and the two-cylinder engine, as regards 
the method of handling the exhaust f 

A. In the two-cylinder engine the steam goes into 



416 LOCOMOTIVE CATECHISM. 

a receiver in the front end and is there heated, thns 
utilizing some of the otherwise waste heat of the 
combustion-gases . 

Q. What is one advantage of the compound 
engine as regards regenerated steam f 

A. It utilizes better than the non-compound (or 
single-expansion) engine that steam which would be 
condensed against the cylinder- walls of the high- 
pressure cylinder ; the walls of the low-pressure 
cylinder not having a much lower temperature at the 
moment of expansion of steam than those of the 
high-pressure. 



Consult also Index to Appendix A and B, beginning on page 435. 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Accidents, Special Tools and Ap- 
pliances in Case of 290 
Acid, Sulphuric, in Water, . . 90 

Adhesion, 207 

Adjustment of Brasses, . . 116 
Admission, Steam, see Steam-ad- 
mission. 
Advance, see Lead. 
Air-brake Pumps, Drainage of . 237 

Oil for 237 

Air-chamber, Suction, ... 71 
Air-leak from Brake-cylinder, . . 334 
Air-pump for Air-brake, . 234 

Giving out .... 333,334 
9£ inch Improved, of Westing- 
house Automatic Brake . 234 

Air-whistle, 212 

Alkali in Feed-water, . . .87,90 
Allan Valve-gear, Uncrossed Rods, 

*160, 161 
Allen Valve, . . *136, *137, 138 
American Engines, Driving-wheels 

of 19 

American Express Engines, . *218 
American Locomotive, . . 217 

Coal required for . . . 64 

Cylinder-position in 90 

Driving-wheels of 191 

Evaporating capacity . . 64 
Steam-chest position of . . 126 
American Passenger Locomotive, 

Axles of 190 

Angle of Connecting-rod, . . . 151 
Angular advance of Eccentric, ef- 
fect of Link-motions on . . 144 

Angular lead, 140 

Application of Air-brakes, 230,239 

Application of Westinghouse quick- 
action Automatic Brake, . . 239 
Arch, brick, see Brick-arch. 

Arch, Extension, see Front end, 

long. 
Arch, valve, see Valve-arch. 
Area, Port, see Port-area. 
Arms, Rocker, see Rocker-arm. 
Articulated Four-cylinder Com- 
pounds, 270 

Ash-pan, 29 

Jammed, ... .307 
Ash-pan Damper, . . . .29 
Automatic Brake, see Brakes. 



Page. 

Average Effective Pressure, see 

Mean Effective Pressure, . . 252 

Axle-box, Tender, .... *223 
Axle-brasses, .... 195 
Journals, 195 

Axles, *155,*191 

Broken 334 

Crank, Broken, . . .94, 124 

Driving 189 

Fastening Driving-wheels to 191 
Safe Weight to put on . . 199 
Spacing of .... 198 
Truck, *202 

Babbitting Brasses, . 117, 123, 1P5 
Back Pressure in Cylinders, . . 52 

Back-tanks, 217 

Backing Engine with a Broken 

Driving-wheel, ... 338 
Bad Water, Fire-box for . . . 42 
Balance, Lead and Compression as 

Counteracting lack of . . 209 
Balanced Valve, see Valve. 
Balancing Weight of Connecting- 
rod, 95 

Baldwin Compounds, see Vauclain. 
Ball-joint in Steam-pipes, . . 87 
B. & A. R. R., Compounds on . 269 

Barrel, Boiler . . . . 57. 58 

Bars, Crown . . .22, 40. 42, 43 
Frame .... *179, 1^0 
Guide . . *109, I10,*lll, 112, 113 

Pushing 213 

Bearings, Crank-pin . . .116 

Truck-wheel .... 205 

Wrist-pin 116 

Bed-castings, .... 97 

Bed-plates, 97 

Belpaire Fire-box, . . *41, 42 

Bell 210 

and Frame, .... *211 

Gong, 212 

Bissell Truck, see Truck, Pony. 
Bituminous Coal, Burning . . 35 
Fire-boxes for ... 19 

Water-grate for . . . . *31 
Blast, Exhaust .... 51 
Bleeder, see Frost-cock, . . .74 

Blind Tires, 196 

Blocking 848 

Crosshead, .... 816 



4i8 



INDEX. 



Blocking Steam-pipe or ports, 


. 308 


Blow, Hammer 


. 208 


Blow-off, .... 


. 77 


Broken .... 


294, 298 


Broken or Stuck . 


. 294. 298 


Cocks, .... 


. 77, 78 


Blower 


. 29, 50 


Cock, .... 


28 


Blowing- Up, 


. 78 


Blowing Piston, 


. 317 


Blows, .... 


. 320 


Blue-stone for Tank, . 


. 305 


Blue Vitriol for Tank, . 


. 305 


Boiler, .... 


. 9, ISO 


Broken Steam-pipe in . 


293 


Curve of Shell, 


. 47 


Diameter of 


*1S« 


Essential Parts of . 




Height of Water in . 


. 89 


Over-feeding . 


73 


Steel, Pressure suitable for . 59 


Under-feeding 


74 


Wagon-top . 


21,22 


Washing out . 


8 


Materials for 


. 16 


Tightness of . 


62 


Boiler-barrel, 


57, 5S 


Boiler-feeding, Water for 


89 


Boiler-plate, Strength of . 


. 59 


Boiler-seams, Strain on 


63 


Boiler-waist, .... 


58 


Bolster, Swing . 


*202, 203 


Bolts and Nuts for Crown-stays, 


Bolts, Follower . 


*103, 312 


Frame .... 


. 1S2 


Stay .... 


22, 23, 25 


Tie 


. 22, 23 


Bourdon Steam-gage, 


. *65 


Box Link, .... 


, *153 


Box, Sand .... 


205,*206 


Smoke, see Smoke-box. 




Stuffing 


. 106 


Boxes, Journal 


. *204 


Brake-cylinder Pistons, Limits of 


Travel of ... 


. 244 


Brake-hose, uncoupling . 


. 247 


Brake-pump, How to Start . 


. 246 


Brake-shoes, 


*229 


Brake-work, Steam 


. *229 


Brakes, Application of 


*230 


Automatic 


231, 232 


Taking off . 


. 233 


Essential Features of 


242 


Releasing 


233, 239 


Brakes, Compressed-air 


. 231 


Driver, Loosening 
Emergency Application of 


. 197 


. 240 


Hand 


. 231 


on the Rails, . 


. 230 


Power . 


. 231 


Straight-air 


231, 243 


Vacuum .... 


231, 247 



Page. 
Brakes, Westinghouse . . . 232? 
Braking Action, Cutting out Cars 

from 242. 

Branches, T-pipe . . . .86 

Brass Tubes, ..... 35- 

Brasses, .... *119,*120, *204 

Adjustment of . . . 116 

Axle 195- 

Babbitted . . , . 195 

Babbitt Plugs for . . .17 
Coupling- rod. Keying . . 123 
Crank-pin, Material for . .117 
Cylindrical .... 195 

Driving 195' 

Keying up 116, 117 

Lost Motion in . . . . 323- 
Main-rod . . . . 117 

Octagonal 105- 

Rod Babbitting . . . 123 
Breakage, see under the names of 

the parts liable to be broken. 
Breakage of Crank-axles, . . 124 
Brick-arch. . . .44, 45> 

Coal Consumption with and 

without . ... 46 
on Water-tubes . . . .45 

Value of 46^ 

Bridge broken from Valve-seat . 303- 
Bristol Roller Slide-valve, . 139,*140- 
British Engines, Steam-chest posi- 
tion on 126- 

Brushes for Removing Snow . . 213 
Buchanan Fire-box, ... 20' 
Buckwheat Coal, Fire-boxes for . 20- 
Built-up Frames and Pedestals,*179, 1S1 
Bumper Timber . . . *179, 180, 213- 

Bumpers, *214 

Burning the Crown-sheet . . 74 

the tubes .... 74 

Burst Flue 295> 

By-pass Valve, Vauclain Com- 
pound Engine . . . *101 

Cage, Valve, 74 

Calking 33, 62 

Calking Water-grate Tubes . . 33 
Calking-tools, .... 62: 
Camel-back Engine, . . .*291 
Carrying Water over into the Cylin- 
ders, 73 

Casing, Cylinder .... 99 
Cast-iron Cinder-boxes, . . 48- 
Driving-wheels .... 191 
Castings, Bed, see Bed-castings. 
Cellars, Oil, see Oil-cellars. 
Center Cranks, .... 123 
Center-pins . . . 184, 200, *2Q2 

Center-plate 202 

Chain, Check .... 205. 22a 
Safety .... 2C5, 223- 
Chamber, Air, see Air-chamber. 
Chamber, Valve, see Valve-chamber. 



INDEX. 



419 



Paee. 

Check-body, *75 

Check-chains, .... 205 

Tender 228 

Check, Pump, see Pump-check. 
Check-valves, Position of *. . 76 

Outside 76 

Removing .... 71 

Checking the Speed, 228 

Chest-covers, Squaring Valves with 

them off, 319 

Chest, Steam, see Steam-chest. 

Chime Whistle 211 

Chimney-damper, . . . 48,*49 
Cinder-boxes, Cast-iron . . 48 
Cinders, Clogging with . . .38 
Prevention from Throwing . 48 
Cities, Engines for Use in . . 215 
Clamp for Removing Equalizer- 
gibs *341, 342 

Clamping-rig for Throttle-valve, 84 

Clamping Valve-stem, . , . 316 
Clamps, Expansion . . . 181 
Classes of Locomotives, . . . 215 
Cleaning Fires, .... 35 

Smoke-box, 50 

Clearance, Inside .... 134 

Clearing the Cranks, , . .114 

Track in case of Wreck, . 346 

Clogging Tubes by Cinders, . . 38 

Coal, Bituminous, Burning . . 35 

Consumption with and without 

Brick-arch, .... 46 

Grates for 30 

Required for American Loco- 
motive, 64 

• Soft, Stack for . . . .55 

Coal-saving 46 

Cocks, Blower 28 

Blow-off 77 

Cylinder 99 

Feed . .- . . 71,*72,*7S 

Frost 74 

Pet 68 

Try 66 

Column, Water, see Water-column. 67 
Compounding, Advantages of . 250 

Compound Locomotives, 10, 12,*91, 249 
Baldwin's .... 266, 2S4 
Consolidation, *96 

Double-bogy, . . . .266 
Eight-wheel, *95 

Exhaust from . . . .251 

Freight, 209 

Four-cylinder, . . .94, 265 
Four-cylinder, Articulated, . 270 
Four-cylinder, Receiver Type, 266 
French Tandem, ... 269 

Mallet 255, 266 

Mean Effective Pressure in 252 

on B. & A. R. R. . . . 269 
Piston-arrangement in . . 251 
on Northern Railway of France, 262 



Page. 
Compound Locomotives on P. L. & 

M. R'y 266 

R. I. Loco.Works, 270,*271,*272, 273 
Safety-valves for Receivers of 260 
Schenectady, 273.*274,*275,*276, 
*277,*278,*279, 280, 281, 282, 283 
Starting-valves for . . 259 

Tandem, . . . . . 267 
Tandem, Shifting-link in . 268 
Tandem, Steam-distribution . 268 
Three-cylinder, . . 94,262 
Two-cylinder, . . . .94 
Two-cylinder, Crossheads for *108 
Turning Power of 255 

Vauclain, . . 94,266,284 

Vauclain, Cylinder-cock of *101 
Von Borries', .... 255 

Webb, 264,265 

Webb, Starting-power of . 265 

Worsdell .... 255,256 

Compressed-air Brakes, . . 231 

Compression, 132 

as Counteracting lack of Bal- 
ance, 209 

in Compounds, to avoid Exces- 
sive 261 

Needed 323 

to Delay 134 

Concave Crank-pins, . . .125 
Concentric Nozzles, .... 53 
Condensing Engines, ... 10 
Condition of Rails as Affecting 

Traction, .... 208 

Coning Wheel-treads, . . 194, 195 
Connecting-rod, . 118, 117,*119,*120 

Angle of 151 

Brasses, . . . . . 117 

Broken 329 

Causing Pitching and Rolling, 183 
Counterbalancing . . . 208 
Disconnecting, .... 329 

Irregularities of *142 

Lost Motion in . . . . 323 

on Two-cylinder Locomotive, 

Tendency of 208 

Pins, . . . . . . 122 . 

Pounding, .... 315 

Shape of 115 

Straps 123 

Stress on 115 

Wrongly Lined . . .318 
Consolidation Compound, . . *96 

Consolidation Engine, . 122,219 

Broken Side-rod on . . 831 
Coupling-rod Pins of . . 122 

Coupling-rods of . 121, 122, 126 
for Heavy Freight . . *220 

Guides for .... 110 

Spring Arrangement for . *186 

Supports of 1S5 

Tires 196 



420 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Continuous Brakes on Mixed Sys- 
tem 233 

Copper Sulphate for Tank, . . 305 
Copper Tubes, .... 35 

Corner-plug, *l6a 

Counterbalancing Connecting-rods. 203 

Links 154 

Coun erbore .99 

Counterweights, .... 203 
Finding Center of Gravity 

of 209. 210 

Coupling-pin, .... *119, *120 
Coupling-rod Brasses, Keying, . 123 
Coupling-rod Pins. . . . 122 
of Eight-wheel Engines . . 122 
of Ten-wheel Engines . . 122 
Coupling-rods, . . . . 117. *120 
for Three-cylinder Com- 
pounds 263 

of Consolidation Engines 121-122. 126 
of Eight-wheel Engines . 122,126 
of Mogul Engines . . . 121 
of Narrow Gage Engines . .122 
of Ten-wheel Engines . . 126 
Couplings, Brake, see Brake-coup- 
lings, 243 

Cover, Steam-chest .... 123 
Cow-catcher, see Pilot . . . 212 
Cracking Fire-box Sheets, . 22 4 88 

Crank US 

Crank-axles. Broken . . .94, 124 

Crank-pins 106, 115 

Bearings of 116 

Brasses, Material ox . . Ill 
Broken .... 332,333 

Concave 125 

Dimensions .... 125 

Friction on ... 125 

Journals, Oiling . . . .117 
Material of .... 124 

Steel 125 

Stress on 125 

Crank-setting, 114 

Cranks, Arrangement of . . 124 

Center 123 

Clearing 114 

Full 123, 124 

Half ..'... 124 

Inside 123, 124 

Rotative Effect. . . 125, 126 
Which should Lead in Com- 
pounds 251 

Crosby-Bourdon Steam-gage, . . *65 
Crosby Pop Safety-valve, . 79 *S0 
Cross-area of Tubes, . . . 37, 33 
Crossed-rod Link-motions, Lead 

with . ' ... 144 
Crossed Rods, .... *14S 
Gooch Gear, .... *157 
Crosshead, . . . 106, 107.*109,*111 
Blocking, . 311, 314, 315, 316 
Broken 315,316 



Page. 
Cross-head, Fastening of Piston- 
rod in 106 

for Compound Engines having 
two cylinders on a side, . *103 

Gibs 107 

Guides, 106 

Pins 106,107 

Piston-rod Fastenings in . *106 
Position, Marking . . .320 

Vauclain *103 

Crown-bars, . . . 22, 40, 42, 43 
Crown-sheet, . . . . . 22, 40 

Burning, 74 

Curved 41 

Staying 40 

Crown-stay Bolts and Nuts, . 43 

Crows' Feet, 44 

Curved Crown-sheets, ... 41 
Curve of Boiler-shell, . . .47 
Curve-rounding, to Facilitate . 197 
Curves, Running on ... 194 

Cushion, see Compression. 
Cut-off, . . . . . 131,149 
Cutting Cars out from Braking, 242 
Cylinder and Half-saddle. . . *99 
and Half-saddle, Penn. R. R. 
Engine, Class " O " . . *93 
Cylinder-casing, .... 101 
Cylinder-cock Work, . . . 100 
Cylinder-cocks, Action in Sudden 

Blow from 320 

Improving Lubrication by 

Opening 293 

in Reversing, . . . 292 

Showing Steam .... 322 
Squaring Valves by . . 313 
Vauclain Compound . .*101 

Cylinder-diameters, Outside-cylin- 
der Compound . . . 259 

Cylinder-head, *97 

Broken . . 310,311,312,315 
Broken or Blown out . . 310 

Fastenings 99 

Knocking out .... 101 
Cylinder-head Nuts, Danger in 

Screwing up, .... 312 

Putting on ... . 312 

Taking down .... 312 

Replacing .... 312 

Cylinder-joint, . . . .99, 101 

Cylinder-lagging, .... 102 

Cylinder-lubricators, . . . 317 

Cylinder-oiling in Case of Broken 

Throttle-valve, ... 294 
Cylinder-packing Wrong, . . 321 
Cylinder-power, .... 207 

Cylinders *97, 93 

and Piston Slide-valve, Vau- 
clain Compound 

. *2S4-*2S5-*286-*287 
Arrangement of ... 94 
Carrying water over into . . 73 



INDEX. 



421 



Page. 
Cylinders, Inclined . . . *97, 199 
Number of in Compound En- 
gines 249 

Penn. R. R. Engine, Class "O" *92 
Position of ... 90 

Pounding in .... 324 
Shoulder in .... 99 
Valve-chest and Half-saddle, 

Vauclain . . . . 94, 95 

Webb Compound Locomotive *91 

Cylindrical Brasses, . . . . 195 

Damper, Ash-pan ... 29 

Chimney 48 

Luttgens', for Coal-burners *49 

Damping Fire, 302 

Dead-plate, .... *34,*36 
Decapod Engines, . . 220,*221 

Heavy Freight, . . . *221 
Deflecting-plate, ... *2S,*47 
Deflector, Furnace-door *27,*28,*47 

Spark 55 

Diamond Stack, . . .48, 54, 55 

Dip-pipe, 74 

Disconnection, . . . 294, 344 
Distance-pieces, . . . 110, 183 

Distribution, Effects of Lead on 141 
Dividing Valves, . . . . 31S 

Dome *18«, 21, 86 

Stiffening Ring for . .64 

Use of 63 

Door, drop 33 

Fire-box . . . *18«, 22, 26 
Furnace . . . *18«, 22, 26 
Double-acting Engines, . . 9, 10 
Double-bogy Compounds, . . 266 
Double-ended Engines, . 217,*223 
Down Grade, Water to Carry when 
Approaching .... 89 

Draft, 37,38 

Draft-pipe, 299 

Regulation . . . .51 

Sign of Proper .... 29 

too low 299 

Draining of Air-brake Pumps, . 237 
of Pumps and Injectors . 302, 345 
of Triple-valves . . . 244 

Draw-bar, *214 

Attachment of . . . .212 
Drawing fire; .... 302, 306 
Drifting Without Steam, Position 

of Reverse-lever in . .. 291 
Drilling Rivet-holes, . . .61 
Drip from Try-cocks, ... 67 

Driver Brakes, 248 

Loosening .... 197 

Drivers, Number of . . . . 222 

of Switching Engine . . 225 

Driving-axles 189 

Broken 834 

Not Squared . . . .844 
Position of .... 198 



Page. 
Driving-axles, Springs . . . 189 
Driving-box Wedges, Thumping, 323 
Driving-boxes, effect of Driver- 
brake on 248 

Lost Motion in . . . . 328 

Driving-brasses .... 195 

Driving-springs, . . .*187,*188 

Driving-wheel Arrangement, . 217 

Brake-pistons, Travel of . 245 

Broken, Backing Engine with 338 

Cast-iron 191 

Diameter 215 

Fastening to Axles . . . 191 
Hydraulically-welded . . 191 

Number of 190 

of American Engines . . 191 
Position of . . . . ,199 

Tires 196 

to Permit Narrowing Gage *193 
Wrought-iron . . . 191 

Driving-wheels 190 

Drop-plate, *36 

Drop-door, 33 

Drum, Mud, see Mud-drum . . *80 
Dryness of Steam in Compounds, 253,254 
Dry-pipe .... *18«, 85, 86 
Relief-valve in 292 

Du Bousquet, Tandem Compounds 269 
Dunbar Piston-packing, . . . 105 

Dust-guard, 228 

Duty of Engine-runner before 
Starting out, .... 290 

D-valve, Short 128 

Dynamometer, Traction . . 207 

Eccentric-rods, . . *167, 174, 177 

Broken 326 

Shortening 318 

Wrong Length of . . . 324 

Eccentrics, . *155, 166, 173,*19l 

Broken 



Key-ways for 


. 174 


Loose 


. 318, 324 


Set-screws for 


. 174 


Setting 


141,*169,*170,*171 


Single . 


*16S 


Throw of 


. 133 


Eccentric-sheave, 


. 169 


Eccentric-straps, 


. *155, 174 


Broken 


. 826 


Loose 


. 318 



Effectiveness of Heating-surface, . 3!) 
Effective Rod-length, . . .117 
Effect of Train-parting on the 

Brakes, 242 

Eight-wheel Engines, . . 217, '219 
Coupling-rods of . . 122, 126 
Coupling-rod Pins of . . 122 

Front Support of . . . 184 

Ejector, Spark 47 

Emergency Application of Brakes, 240 
Emergency Brake, When to use 246 



422 



INDEX. 



Page. 
End-play of Driving Axle . . 337 
Engine No. 999, N. Y. C. &H. R. R.*216 
Engine Crippled on one side, . . 301 
Engineer, see Engine-runner, . 243 
Engine-motion, Resistance to . . 205 
Engine-runner, .... 243 
Engine-runner's Brake-valve, . 243 
Brake, Westinghouse, . . 237 
Signalling by Conductor, . . 212 
Engine-runners, two for each en- 
gine 293 

Special Duty in Start : ng out, 290 
Engines for use in large Cities, . 215 
English Passenger Locomotive, 

Driving-wheels of 1S9 

Equalizing-beams, see Equalizers. 
Equalizers, . 184,*1S7,*1SS,*202 

Broken 339 

Removing Gibs from . . 341 
Work .... *187, *188 
Equalizing Bars, see Equalizers. 
Discharge Valve, Westing- 
house Brake .... 237 
Pony Trucks .... 203 
Springs of Mogul Engines . 1S5 
Valve Gears .... 151 
European Locomotives, Cylinder- 
position in 90 

Evaporating Capacity of American 

Locomotive , ... 64 

Exhaust, Blowing .... 308 

Compounds .... 251 

Lame 318 

Whistling .... . 822 

with Stephenson Link-motion 149 

Exhaust-beats, 318 

Exhaust-blast, Action of . 51 

Exhaust-commencement, . . 134 

Exhaust-nozzles, . . . . 47 

Adjusting and Repairing . . 50 

Clogged .... 318, 322 

Concentric 53 

Double *53 

Examining 299 

for Hard and for Soft Coal 

Fires 53 

Number of 51 

Single *53 

Vortex 52 

Exhaust-opening, .... 134 

Exhaust-orifices, . . . .51 

Influence of size of . . 52 

Varying 52 

Exhaust-pipe, Double Nozzle, . 52, 53 
Material of . . . . .51 
Exhaust-sounds , 317 

Exhaubt-thimDles, . . . .47 
Exhaust-valve of R. I. Loco. Wks 

Compound . , . . 273 

Expanding Tube-ends, . . 38,39 

Expansion, .... 131,149 

to Shorten 134 



Page, 

Expansion with Ordinary Link- 
motion ..... 149 
Expansion-clamps, . . . 181 
Expansion-joint in Steam-pipes, . 87 
Expansive Working of Steam, . 126 
Explosion, Prevention of . 78 

Express Passenger Engines, 217, *21S 
Extended Smoke-box, see Front 

End, Long 49 

Extension Arch, see Front End 
Long. 

11 Fast" and " Slow " Gages, . 66 
Fastenings for Stay-bolts . . 25 
Fastenings, Piston-rod . . . 106 
Fastest Train in the World, Engine 

of *216 

Fast Freight Engines, . . .220 
Feed-cock, . . .71, *72, *73 

Feed-cock Plug, .... 74 

Feed-heaters, 90 

Feed-pipa, . . . . . *73 

Feed-pump, 63 

Disabled 302 

Draining .... 302,345 
Freezing, to Prevent . . 74 

Full-stroke 71 

Giving out on the Road . 301 

Not Working . . . .300 
Position of . . . .68, 71 
Short-stroke . . . .71 
Time to use . . . . 303 
Working on the Crippled Side 301 
Feed-valve Attachments, Westing- 
house Engineer's Brake, . 237 
Feed-water, Alkali in . . .87 

Oil in 87 

Where Introduced . . .83 
Feed-water Work, *72 

Ferrule, 33 

Filling-pieces, . . . *111, 1S3 
Fine Coal, Fire-boxes for . . 20 
Fink Valve-gear, . . . *163,164 

Fire-boxes 9, 18, *18« 

above the Axles, . . .21 
Belpaire .... *41, 42 
between the Axles, . . .21 
Buchanan .... 20 
Cracking of . . . .18, 22 
Construction of . . .16 
Door .... *18s22, 26 
for Bituminous Coal . . 18 

for Buckwheat Coal . . 20 
for Fine Coal . . . .20 
for Hard Coal .... 18 
for Soft Coal . . 18.19,21 

for Wood 19 

Jets in- 29 

Lagging 23 

Long 19 

Making Room for 183 

Matanzas Ry . . . . *41 



INDEX. 



423 



Page. 
Fire-boxes, Materials for . . 18 
Pressure on ... . 23, 25 
Sheets, Cracking . . .88 
Washing out .... 81 
Wootten .... 20,217 
Fire-cleaning . . . . . 35 

-damping, 807 

-drawing, . . . 302,306 

not Burning Well . . .298 
on Grades .... 304 

Urging 28 

Fire-door, . 18, *18, 22, 26, *27, *28 
Flange-friction . . . .193 

Flange, Truck-wheel, Broken . 339 

Cut 344 

Flanges, Lubricating, . . .193 
Flatting Wheels . . . .194 
Flue-ends, Expanding ... 38 

Flue-plate 39 

Flue-plugs 297 

Flues 35,37 

as Stays 44 

Brass . . . . . .35 

Burning. .... 74 

Burnt, . . . . . 295 

Copper ..... 35 

Cross Area of . . . 37,38 
Diameter of .... 39 

Leaky 89 

Length of .... 38 
Materials for . . . .35 

Steel; 35 

Stoppage of .... 38 

Foaming, 304,305 

Cause of 87 

to Stop 88 

Follower, Piston, . . *103, 312 
Hole in .... 320 

Follower-bolt Nuts, . . .104 

Follower-bolts, Taking off, *103,312 
Foot-board, see Foot-plate. 
Foot-plate, . . . . . .212 

Forney Engines, . . . 219, *223 
Forney Switching-engines, . .*222 
Foundation-ring, . . . . 25, 26 

Four-cylinder Compounds, 265, 266, 270 
Four-cylinder Engine , . .9, 94, 96 
Four-cylinder Receiver Com- 
pounds, .... 266, 270 

Four-way Cock, . . . .233 

Four-wheel-connected Engine, 

Broken Driving-axle, . . 335 
Four-wheel Truck, . . *201, *202 
Frame-r.ars, .... *179, 180 

Frame-bolts, . . . . .182 

Frames 178, 180 

Built up . . . .*17y, 181 

Slab 182 

Frames for Narrow Gauge Engine, 

*1S2,*1S3 
Freezing of Pumps and Injectors, 
to Prevent ... 74. 302 



Page. 

Free-running Engines, . . .190 

Freight Engines, 215, 219 *220, *221 , *224 

Compound .... 269 

for Cities 215 

French Tandem Compounds, . 269 

Friction of Flanges, . . . , 193 

of Slide-valve . . 136 

of Crank-pins .... 125 

Rolling 205 

Sliding 205 

Frozen Brake-cylinder Packing, 334 

Frost-cock, 74 

Frost-plugs 302 

Front End, Long, . . . .49 

Effect of 50 

Stack for 54 

Short 48,51 

Front Rails, 183 

Fuel and Water, where borne 225, 226 
Fuel-consumption, Grate for a 

Given 33 

Fuel, Where Carried . . .218 
Full Cranks, . . . 123, 124 

Full Gear 149 

Pounding in . . . . 323 
Full-stroke Pumps, . . . .71 
Functions of Valves, . . . 128 
Furnace-door, see Fire-door. 
Fusible Plug, .... *18«, 68 

Gages, Steam 64 

Water 67 

"Fast" and "Slow" . . *66 

Testing 66 

Gaskets 99, 101 

Gear, Full 143 

Half 148 

Mid 148 

Valve, see Valve-gear, . . 145 

Gibs, 107,112 

Gong-bell, 212 

Gooch Valve-gear, . 156,*157, 158 

Grate-bars, Best Section for . . 29 

Material for .... 33 

Grates, Plain, for Soft Coal, . . 33 

for Hard Coal, . . . 30, 31 

for Soft Coal 30 

for Wood, 30 

Rocking .... *30, 34, 35 
Shaking, see Grate, Rocking. 

Water 30 

Required for Given Fuel-con- 
sumption, . . . .33 
Grate-surtace, Amount of . . 46 
Grease in Tank, .... 805 
Guarding Train, .... 345 
Guide-bars (see also Guides), 

*109, 110,*111, 112, 113 
Guide-bearers, . . . *109,*111 
Guide Filling-pieces, . . .110 
Guide-yokes, . . . *109, 110 
Guides, see also Guide-bars. 



4?4 



INDEX. 



Guide-yokes, Crosshead 

Forms of . 

for Consolidation Engines, 

for Mogul Engines, 

Loose 

Number of 

Pounding caused by Wear of 

Worn 
Gusset-stays, 



Page. 

106,*109 

108 



110 
110 
312 



43,44 



212 



Half-cranks, . . . . .124 

Half-gear 148,149 

Half-saddles, *99 

of Vauclain Compound Engine, 94 
of Penn. R. R. Engine, Class 
"O," .... *93 

Hammer-blow, 

Hand-brakes, .... 
Hand-holes, 

Hanger, 

Hard Coal, Exhaust-nozzle for 
Fire-box for 

Grates for ... 
Hauling Power of Compounds, 
Head, Cylinder, see Cylinder-head 
Head-light, .... 
Head, Piston, see Piston-head. 
Heaters, Feed, .... 90 
Heaters in Round-house, . . 23 
Heating-surface . ... 38 
Amount of . . . . .40 
Effectiveness of ... 39 
Required, .... 39 
Heavy Freight Engines, . 219, 220 
Heavy Switching and Freight En- 
gines *224 

Heavy Switching-engines, . . *225 
Heavy Trains, Starting . . . 292 
Height of Stack, .... 57 
of Water in Boiler . . 89 
Heusinger von Waldegg Valve- 
gear 161, *162 

High-pressure Engines, . 9, 10 

Holes, Hand .81 

Holes, Rivet, see Rivet-holes. 

Hose, Suction, . . . . 74, 75 

Tender 226, 227 

Hour-glassing Rivet-holes, . . 61 
Hughes Starting-valve, . _ . . 259 
Hydraulically-welded Driving- 
wheels, . . - . . . 191 



Ice in the Throttle-valve, 
Inclined Cylinders, 
Injectors, .... 

Draining 

Failing, 



. 334 
^97, 199 

. 77 
. 302 

. 300 

. 301 



Giving out on the Road 
" Little Giant," .... *76 
Time to use . . . . 303 
Inside Clearance, .... 134 
Cranks, .... 123, 124 



Page r 
Inside-cylinder Locomotives, . 91, 123- 
Advantages of ... 94 
Inside Lap, .... 132, 134 

Internal Fire-box, .... 9- 

Irregularities of Connecting-rod, *142' 

Jacket, *1T 

Jacking up an Engine, . . 344 

Jaws, Pedestal 205' 

Jerky Running, .... 95- 
Jets in Fire-box, . . . .29 

Joints, Ball 8T 

Cylinder .... 99,101 
Expansion in Steam-pipes . 8T 

Mud-ring *2fr 

Steam-chest .... 99' 

Journal-boxes, ... . . *204 

Journals, Axle .... 195 

Crank-pin, Oiling . . . 117 

Keying-up Brasses, . 116, 117, 12S 

Keys *119,*120 

Key-ways for Eccentrics, . . 174- 

Knocking, to Avoid . . . 133- 
Knocking out Cylinder-head, . . 101 
Knocks, to Place 328 

Lagging, *18#, 81 

Cylinder *161 

Fire-box 23- 

Lame Exhaust, Causes of . . 318- 

Lap, Inside 134 

Negative Inside . . . 134 
Outside . . . 131,134*169' 

Large Driving-wheels, Advantages 

of 190 

Disadvantages of . . . 191 

Latch 84, 175*176. 

Lead-angle ■ 140, 141 

Lead, Angular .... 140' 
as Counteracting Lack of Bal- 
ance 209 

Constant 150 

Effects of, on Distribution . 141 
in Stationary-link Motion, . 144 

Measuring, .... 142' 
Needed, ..... 323- 
Objects of . . . . 141 
on Waldegg Gear, . . . 162" 
Steam . . . 133, 140, 173 
Varying with the Shifting-link, 145 
with Crossed Rods and Sta- 
tionary Link . . . 144 
with Stationary Link, . . 15T 
with Stephenson Link-motion, 150' 

Leading Wheels, Position of . . 199' 

Leaks, in Brake-pipes, . . . 244 
what to do in Case of . . 294 

Leaky Brake System, . 283 

Flues 89 

Throttle, Sign of . . . 293 

Legs, Pedestal 182 



INDEX. 



425 



Page. 

Length of Tubes, . . . .38 

of Valve-seat . 135 

Lever, Relief *18« 

Throttle . ... *S2, 83 

Liberating-surface, . . . .88 

Lifter, *155 

Link *155 

Tumbling-shaft, Broken . 328 

Lift-pipe, 51 

Lime for Tank, 305 

Lindner Starting-valve, . . 259 

Linear Lead, 140 

Liners 205, 330 

Lining Valves, 318 

Link, .... 153, 154, *155 

Link-block, Raising and Lowering, 156 

Link, Box, Counterbalancing *153, 154 

Effect of Raising ... 147 

Open .... 14T, *152 

Ordinary .... *152 

Shifting, see Shifting Link. 

Stationary, see Stationary Link. 

Suspension-point of . . . 151 

Link-hanger, Broken . . . 328 

Link-motion, see also Valve-gear 149 

Link-motion Engines, . . 9, 14 

Gear 145 

Link-motion, Ordinary, Expansion 

with 149 

Shifting 149 

Stephenson .... 149 
Shifting, Constant Lead with 143 

Link-saddle, *155 

Link-slot, Radius . . . .150 
"Little Giant" Injector . . *76 
Local Passenger Engines, . . 217 
Locked Safety-valve ... 79 
Locomotive Brake, .... 247 
Long Fire-boxes, .... 19 
Long Front End, ... 49 

Effect on Fire Required, . . 50 
Effect on the Draft, . . 50 

Stack for 54 

Loops 248,249 

Lost Motion, .... 323 

Lowering Link, Effect of . . 147 
Lubricating Flanges, . . 193 

Lubrication, Improved by Opening 

Cylinder-cocks, ... 293 
of Slide-valve, . . . .135 
Lubricators, Cylinder . . . 317 
Luttgens' Stack Damper for Coal- 
burners *49 

Main Valve-bushing, Westinghouse 
9£ inch Air-pump . . . 234 

Mallet Compounds, . . 255, 258, 266 
Articulated Four-cylinder . 270 
Starting Power of 257 

Two-cylinder .... 258 

Marine Engines, . . . .10 

Matanzas Railway, Fire-box for *41 



Page. 

Materials for Boilers, . . .16 

for Fire-boxes, . . . It 

for Grate-bars, . . . .33 

for Piston-rings, . . . *103- 

for Stacks, 57 

for Tubes, 35 

for Water-grates, . . .33 
Meady Muffled Pop Safety-valve, *80 
Mean Effective Pressure in Com- 
pound Engines, . . . 252 
Measuring Lead, .... 142 

Mid-gear, 149 

Milholland Fire-box, . . 18,*19 

Mining Engines, . . .226 

Mogul Engines, . . 199, 200, 219 

Broken Driving-axles, . . 336 
Coupling-rod Pins of . . 122 
Coupling-rods of ... 121 

Equalizing-springs, . . 185 

for Freight .... *220 
for Passenger Service, . . 222 
Front Support of 184 

Guides for .... 110 

Tires of 196 

Tractive Power of . . . 200 
Wheel-Daseof . . .221 

Mud-drum, 81 

Mud-plugs, IX 

Mud, Removing . ... 77. 81 

Mud-ring, ...... 25 

Joints, 26 

Muffler, *80 

Mulay Tires 19& 

Karrow-gage Engines, Coupling- 
rods of 122 

Frame for . . . *182. 183 

Narrowing of Gage, Driving-wheels 

to Permit .... *193 
Negative Inside Lap, . . . 134 

Netting, 47 

Non-compound Engines, . . 10 
Non-condensing Engines . . 9 

Northern Railway of France, Com- 
pounds on .... 262,269 
Nuts and Bolts for Crown-stays, . 43 
Nuts for Follower-botls, . . 104 
N. Y. C. & H. R. R. Engine, No. 

999 *216 

N. Y. C. & H. R. R. Fire-box, . *21 

Octagonal Brasses, .... 195 

Oil-cellars, 196 

Oil, Clogging Exhaust-nozzles, . 822 

for Air-brake Pumps . . 237 

for Brake Cock Apparatus . 245 

in Feed-water . . 87, SS 

Open Links, .... 147, *152 

Open-rod, Shifting-link Motion . 14S 

Orifice, Exhaust, see Exhaust on . 

Fire. 
Outside-connected Engines, . 226 



4*6 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Outside-connected Engines, Steam- 
chest Position of . 125, 127 165 
■Outside Lap, . . . 181, 134, *169 
Over-feeding the Boiler, . . 73 

Tracking, Blowing . . . .320 
Packing-pieces .... 228 
Packing rings .... *103 

Broken 320 

Parallel rods, see Coupling rods. 
Pan, Ash, see Ash-pan. 
Passenger Engines, . 215, 217, *223 

for' Cities ... .215 

Mogul 222 

Pedestal- jaws, .... 205 

Pedestal legs, 182 

Pedestals *179, *202 

Penna. R. R. Engine, Class " O, " *43 
Allen Balanced Valve *136, *137 

Boiler, *37 

Cross-section . . 15, *17, *24 

Front End View . . . *11 

Rear View .... 13 

P. M. & L. Ry., Compounds on . 266 

Pet-cock 70, 73 

Petticoat-pipe, 51 

Phila. & Reading R. R. Fire-box, *20 

Pilot, 213, *214 

Pins, Center . . 183, 184, 200,*202 
Connecting-rod . . 122 

Coupling . . 117,*119,*120 

Crank, see Crank-pin. 

Saddle 329 

Wrist, see Crosshead-pin. 

Pipe, Dip 74 

Dry, see Dry-pipe. 

Litt 51 

Petticoat 51 

Sand 205 

Steam, see Steam-pipe. 
Throttle, see Throttle-pipe. 

T 84, 85, 86 

Piston Arrangement in Compound 

Engines, 251 

Vauclain Compound . . 288 

Piston-follower, . . . *103 

Piston-head, . . . *101, 102,*lu3 

Vauclain Two-part Cast iron, *105 

Striking Cylinder-head, . 324 

Hollow 106 

Piston-packing, .... 312 

Dunbar 105 

Examining .... 314 
Follower-bound .... 314 

Loose 317 

Short 314,323 

Piston-pressure, .... 312 

Piston-rings, *103 

Material for .... 104 

Piston-rods, Fastenings for . . 106 

Bent 324 

Cracked 812 



Page. 
Piston-rods, Fastening in Crosshead 106 



Fastenings in Piston-head 


. 106 


Loose .... 


Piston-rod Key, 


. 312 


Broken 


. 312 


Loose .... 


. 312 


Piston-springs, . 


.*108 


Pistons, 


102,*108 


Badly Lined, 


. 312 


Blocking, 


. 330 


Blowing, 


. 317 


Broken .... 


. 315 


Centering, . 


. 312 


Dismounting . 


. 312 


Fastening . - 


. 314,315 


Steam-packed . 


. 104 


Piston-valves, Hollow 


*130 


Pitching, .... 


. 225 


and Rolling, 


183, 184 


Plain Grate for Soft Coal, . 


86 


for Wood, . 


. *34 


Plain Tires, .... 


. 196 


Plate, Bed . 


. *97 


Plate, Dead .... 


*34,*36 


Deflecting 


*28,*47 


Giving Way of 


60 


Tube, .... 


. 39 


Plug, Corner, .... 


. *J8 


Feed-cock, . 


. 74 


Flue 297 


Fusible, . . . *18«, 68, 298 


Mud, 77 


Safety, .... *1S«, 62 


Waist, 


. *18« 



Point of Application of Brake-shoes, 
Pony Truck, see Truck. 
Pop Safety-valve, . . . .79 
Po t-area, .... 130, 132 

Port-opening, 136 

Position of Driving-axles, . . 198 
of Pumps 68, 71 



Pounding, Causes of, . 

in Full Gear, 

in the Cylinder, 

to Locate, 

with Worn Guides, 
Power Brakes, . 
Pressure, Back, in Cylinders 

Mean Effective, of 
pounds, 

on Fire-box, 

Suitable for Steel Boiler, 
Prevention of Explosion, . 

Priming, 

Pump, Air-brake, Oil for, 
Pump-check, .... 
Pump, Feed, see Feed-pump. 
Pump-plungers Working out 

Line, 815 

Pump-work, *70 

Punching and Reaming Rivet- 
holes, fl 



Com- 



of 



323 
323 
324 
324 
824 
231 



252 
25 
59 
73 
8? 
237 
*75 



INDEX. 



427 



Page. 

Pushing-bar, . . . . .213 

•Quadrant, . . . . *84, 175 

Quick-action Automatic Brake, 

Westinghouse, . . . 234 
Quick-action Automatic Triple- 
valve, 241 

Hadial Gear, . . . .145 
Radius-bars, .... *202 
Rails, . . . . *179 
Application of Brakes to, . . 230 
Condition of as Affecting Trac- 
tion, 208 

Front, 183 

Top, 183 

Raising Link, Effect of, . . . 147 
Ratio between High and Low- 
pressure Cylinders, . . . 250 
Reach-rod, Broken, . . .329 
Reaming Rivet-holes, . . . 61 
Receivers of Compounds, Safety- 
valves for, .... 260 

Size of, 254 

Where to Place, . . . .254 
Reduction of Pressure for Slight 

Application of Brakes, . 239 
Re-evaporation of Steam in Cylin- 
ders of Compounds, . . 253 
Regulation of Draft, ... 51 
Release with Stphenson Link-mo- 
tion 149 

Releasing Brakes, Distribution of 

Air for, ..... 238 
Releasing of Quick-action Autom- 
atic Brakes, . . . .239 

Relief-lever *18a, 79 

Relif-valve Blowing Out of or Un- 
seating of, .... 295 
in Dry-pipe, .... 292 
in Steam-chest, ... . . 139 
Requisites of Valve-gear, . . 146 
Resistance to Engine-motion, . 205 

Reverse-lever 175, 177 

Attachments, . . . *176, *177 
Position of in Drifting without 

Steam 291 

Position of in Starting, . .291 
Reversible Engines, . . 16, 167 
Reversing, Action of Cylinder- 
cocks in, . . . . .292 
Danger of when Running Fast, 292 
Suddenly, Precaution in . 292 
when Brakes are on . . . 246 
Reversing-lever, see Reverse-lever. 
Reversing-link, see Link. 
Reversing-shaft, . . . .*155 
R. I. Locomotive Works' Com- 
pound, . . 270, *271, *272, 273 
Richardson Balanced Slide-valve, 139 
Rigid Wheel-base, . . . 198, 207 
Measure of . . . . 199 



59 
.*155 
Engines 

. 319 
133, 167, 168, 178 
327, 328 
*30, 35 
. *32 
*303 
117 



Page. 
Ring, Foundation ... 26 

Mud 25 

Smoke-box . . . . *18# 
Rings, Packing . . . .*103 

Piston *103 

Stiffening 63 

T *103 

Rivet-holes, 59 

Hour-glassing ... 61 

how to make . . .60, 61 

Rivet-seams, Strength of 60 

Tightness of 
Rivets, . 

Diameter of 
Number of .... 61 
Shearing Strength of . . 62 

Spacing 
Testing 
Rock-shafts, 

Squaring Valves on 
Having 
Rocker-arm, . 

Broken . 
Rocking Grates, . 
Rocking-grate Work 
Rod-ends, . *115, *116, *3 
Rod-length, Effective 
Rods, Piston, see Piston-rod. 
Coupling, see Coupling-rods. 

Valve *155 

Solid 333 

Stay 43, 44 

Roller Slide-valve, Bristol . 139, *140 
Rolling and Pitching, Caused by 

Connecting-rods, . . 183 
Rolling Friction, . . . .205 
Rotary Engine, .... 14 
Rotative Effect on Cranks, 125, 126 
Rotative Engine, . . . .14 
Rotatory Engine, . . . 14 
Round-house Heaters for Boilers, 23 
Running-board, .... 212 
Running-gear, 9 

Saddle, Link .... *155 

Saddle-pieces, ..... 186 
Saddle-pin, Broken . . . 329 
Saddle-tank, . . 217, *224, 227 

on Switching Engines, . .*223 
Safety-chains, . . . . 205 

Tender 228 

Safety-plug, . . . ISa, 68 

Blown-out, 298 

Safety-valve, . . . 16,*17, 78 

for Receivers of Compounds, 260 

Locked, 79 

Meady Muffled Pop, . . *S0 

Pop 79 

Sand-box 205 

Sand-box Work, . . . *206 
Sand-pipes, 205 



128 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Scale 42, 89 

Removing .... 81 

Schenectady Compound, 273,*274,*275 

*276,*277,*278,*279,*280, 281, 282, 283 

Scoop-tubes, 227 

Screws, Set, see Set-screws. 
Seams, Boiler .... 59, 62 
Strengthening ... 61 

Strength of 62 

See-sawing, 225 

Segment-shaped Counterweights, 
Finding Center of Gravity of 

209, 210 

Separator, 68 

Set-screws, Broken . . . 330, 332 
for Eccentrics, . . . 174 

Setting Cranks, . . . .114 

Eccentrics, 

141, 168,*169,*170,*171 
Shaft, Reversing .... 155 

Rock 155 

Tumbling . . . 177,178 

Shaking Grate, 35 

Shearing of Rivets, ... 60 
Shearing-strength of Rivets, . . 62 
Sheave, Eccentric, see Eccentric- 
sheave, 169 

Sheet-stays, 43, 44 

Sheet, Crown, see Crown-sheets. 

Sheets, Side 22 

Shifting Link, 149 

Effect on Angular Advance of 

Eccentric 144 

Constant Lead with . . 143 

Gear, 146 

Lead varying with . . 145 

on Tandem-compound Engines, 268 

Valve-motion work, . . *155 

Shoes, Brake .... *229 

Short-stroke Pump, ... 71 

Shoulder in Cylinder, . . .99 

on Valve-seats, . . . 128 

Side-sheets, 22 

Signalling the Engineer by the 

Conductor 212 

Signals, 21o 

Single Eccentrics, . *16S,*171,*172 
Single-eccentric Valve-gears, 

161,*162,*163, 164 

Single Exhaust-nozzle, . . *53 

Six-wheel-connected Engine, . . 226 

Broken Driving-axle, . . 335 

Broken Rods on . . . . 331 

Spacing of Axles, . . . 198 

Slab Frames, 182 

Slide-bars, see Guide-bars. 

Slides, 107,112 

Sliding Friction, . . . .205 

Slide-valve 12. 128 

Allen, Balanced, . . *136. *137 
Balanced, . . . *136, *137, 138 
Broken 309 



Page. 

Slide-valve, Cut ... 30S 

for Compounds, .... 253- 
Friction of .... 136 
Functions of, ... . 129 1 

Lapped, *169 

Lining, 318 

Lubrication of, ... .135- 
Richardson Balanced, . . 139- 
Squaring, .... 139' 

Vauclain, .... *130 
Slide-valve Engines, ... 9* 

Sling-stays, . . . 39, 40< 

Slip 151 

Slipping Tires, to Prevent, . . 19T 

Smoke-box, *4T 

Broken Steam-pipe in, . . 293 
Cleaning out, .... 50- 

Door, *18<z 

Extended, . . .49, 50, 54 
Front, Broken, .... 299 

Ring, *18« 

Temperature, . . . .50- 

to Clear 297" 

Smoke-stack, see Stack. 

Snow, as a Water-supply, . . 306 

Brushes for Removing, . . 213 

Removing from Track, . . 21& 

Soft Coal, Exhaust-nozzle for . 53- 

Fire-box for ... 18, 21 

Grates for ... 80, *36> 

Soot, Deposit of . 3T 

Sounds of the Exhaust, . . 81 

Spacing of Rivets, .... 62 

Spark-deflector, .... 55 

Spark-ejector, *47 

Spider *103 

Hole in 320- 

Loose . . . .323, 324 

Splashers, 213 

Spread, 197 

Split Spring-packing, . . . 105 
Splitting of Plates, ... 60 

Spring-arrangement for Consolida- 
tion Engines, . . . *186 

Springs, 184 

Broken 343 

Spring-hanger, . . . .186- 

Broken 339 

Spring-link, *202 

Spring Packings, .... 105- 
Springs, Piston, see Piston-springs. 
Springs and Equalizer Work, *187, *18& 
Springs, Driving, see Driving 

Springs. 
Squaring Valves, .... 318- 

Stack *18«, *53 

Diameter of .... 57 

Diamond, . . .48, 54, 55 

for Long Front End, . . . 54 
for Soft Coal, .... 55- 

for Wood 56 

Height of 5T 



INDEX. 



429 



Page. 
Stack, Material for . . . .57 

Object of 54 

Steam-jet for . . . .28 

Stand, Steam, .... 67 

Starting, . . . . . .290 

as Affected by Valve-position, 201 
Position of Reverse-lever for 291 
Starting-power of Tandem Com- 
pounds, 269 

of Webb Compounds, . . 265 
of Worsdell and Von Borries 

Compounds 256 

Starting-valve for Compounds, 

Hughes or Lindner, . . 259 
Stationary Engines, Triple-expan- 
sion, 262 

Stationary Link, . . *156, 157, 158 
Effect on Angular Advance of 

Eccentric, . . . 144 

Lead with .... 144, 157 

Stay-bolts, 23 

Fastenings of . . .26 

Removable .... 22 

Staying Crown-sheets, . . .40 

Stay-rods, 43, 44 

Stays, Gusset . . . . 43, 44 

Sheet 43, 44 

Sling 39,40 

Tubes serving as . . . 44 
Straight-air Brake, using Automatic 

Brake as . . . . 233, 243 
Steady-running Engines, . . .91 
Steam-adm ssion, .... 132 
Steam-brake Work, . . . *229 
Steam-chest, . . . *97, 98, 139 
Breaking by Reversing when 

Running fast, . . . .292 
Burst or Broken . . . .307 

Caps, 127 

Cover, 128 

Joint 99 

Positions, . . . 126,127 
Steam-distribution in Tandem-com- 
pounds, 268 

Steam-gage, 64 

Crosby-Bourdon, . . . *65 
Steam-jet for Stack, ... 28 
Steam Lap, . . . 131, 164,*169 

Steam Lead, see Lead. 
Steam-packed Piston, . . . 104 
Steam-pipes, .... *18a 
Ball-joint in ... . 87 

Blocking 308 

Breakage of, in Smoke-box, 293 
Broken inside, ... 293 

Expansion-joint in . .87 

Leak in 820 

Leaky, Sign of . . . .293 

Steam-room, 21, 22 

Steam stand, 67 

Steam-whistle, . . . *82, 210 
Steam, Working expansively . 126 



Page. 
Stephenson Link-motion, 

146, 147, 149, 150 
' Crossed-rods, . . . *14S 
Exhaust with . . . .149 

Lead with 149 

Open Rods, .... *148 
Release with .... 149 
Stephenson Valve-gear, see Stephen- 
son Link-motion. 
Steel, Crank-pins of 125 

Boilers, 16 

Rivets, 59 

Tubes, 35 

Stiffening-ring for Domes, . . 64 
Stoppage of Tubes, . ... .38 
Straight-air Brakes, . . 231, 243 
Straight air, Using Automatic 

Brakes with .... 233 

Strain, on Boiler-seams . . 63 

on Fire-boxes 23 

Straps, Connecting-rod . 116, 123 

Broken 326 

Eccentric . . . *155, 174, 

Loose 318 

Stub-ends .... 116 
Strengthening Seams . . .61 
Strength of Boiler-plates . . 59 
of Seams . . . 60, 62 

Stress on Crank-pins . . . 125 
Stub-ends, . . . 116, *119, *120 
Stub-end Straps, .... 116 

Broken 312 

Blown out .... 311 
Stuffing-box, Gland . . .106 

Lugs Broken . . . .311 
Surburban Engines, . . . 215 

Suction Air-chamber, ... 71 
Suction-hose, . . . . . 74, 75 
Suction Valve-chamber, . . 71 
Sulphate of Copper for Tanks, 305 

Sulphuric Acid in Water, . . 90 
Surface-cock, Opening in Case of 

Foaming 305 

Surface, Heating, see Heating-sur- 
face 88, 46 

Surface, Liberating, ... 88 
Suspension-point of Link, . . 151 
Swing Bolster, . . . *202, 203 
Switching and Local Passenger 

Engines, *223 

Switching-engines . *222, *224, *225 
Drivers of ... . 225 
with Saddle-tank . . .*223 

T-pipe, 84, *85 

Branches of .... 86 

T-ring,- *103 

Tallow-blocks for Lubricating 
Wheel-flanges, . . . " 193 

Tandem Compound Engines, . . 267 

French 269 

Shifting Link in ... 26S 



430 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Tandem Compound Engines, Start- 
ing-power of 269 
Steam-distribution in . . 268 

Tanks, Oil in 88 

Back 217 

Saddle . 217, 223, *224, 227 

Tank-valve off its Stem . . .306 
Tearing of Plates, .... 60 
Tearing the Fire . . . .299 
Temperature in the Smoke-box, . 50 

Tender 226 

Tender Axle-boxes, . . . *22S 
Tender-axle, Broken . . .337 
Tender-brake, .... 248 
Tender Check-chains, . . . 228 

Tender-hose 226,227 

Tender Safety-chains, . . .228 

Tender-truck, . . . 226,227 

Tender-wheel, Broken . . .339 

Ten-wheel Engines, Broken Tires, 338 

Coupling-rod Pins of . . . 122 

Coupling-rods of 126 

Points of Support of . . . 185 

Spacing of ... . 198 

Tires of 196 

Ten-wheelers, . . . 219, 220 
Compounds, R. I. Locomotive 

Works, *289 

Fast Freight . . . .*221 
Tractive Power of . . . 200 
Wheel-base of .... 221 
Terminal Station, Testing and In- 
specting Brakes at . . . 247 
Testing and Inspecting Brakes, . 247 

Testing Gages 66 

Testing Rivets, .... 59 
Thickness of Tires, . . - . .197 
Thimble, Exhaust *47 

Thimbles. Tube 38 

Three-cylinder Compound Engines, 

94, 262 

Coupling-rods for . . . 263 
Three-cylinder Engine . . 90 
Three-cylinder Marine Compounds 263 
Three-way Cock, Westinghouse 

Brake, 237 

Throttle, 85 

Disconnected when Closed . 295 

Disconnected Inside the Boiler 295 

Failing when Open . . 295 

Throttle-lever, . . . *82, 83 

Throttle-pipes, . . *18«, 82, 85, 86 

Stuck Open, .... 295 

Stuck Shut, .... 296 

Throttle-valve, . . . *18«, 82 

Broken, Cylinder-oiling in case 

of 294 

Clamping-rig for . . .84 

Left closed .... 295 

Stem, Nuts working off . . 295 

Throttle-work, *84 

Throw, Eccentric . - . .133 



Page, 

Throwing Cinders, Prevention of 4S 
Throwing out Brakes from any one 

Car 233- 

Tie-bolts, see Stay-bolts. 

Tightness of Seams, . . . 60-62' 

Timber, Bumper . *179, 180, 213 

Tires, *191, 197 

Blind 196- 

Broken 337 

Driving-wheel .... 196- 
Holding to Wheels, . . 191 

Mulay 196- 

of Consolidation Engines, . 196 
of Mogul Engines, . . . 196 
of Ten-wheelers, . . . 196= 

Plain 196 

Thicknessof .... 197 
to prevent Slipping . . . 197 

Wear of 19T 

Tools and Appliances in Case of 

Accidents, .... 290- 
Tools, Calking .... 62 

Top Rails 183 

Towing, Precautions for . . 345- 

Traction 207 

as Affected by Rail Condition 208 
to Increase . . . 205, 207, 225- 
Weight Available for . . 208- 
Traction Dynamometer, . . . 207 
Tractive Power of Mogul Engines, 200 
of Ten-wheelers .... 200- 

of Train 206 

Train-pipe Pressure for Emergency 

Application of Brakes, . . 241 
Train-speed, Controlling on Long 

Down-grades, . . . 245 
Travel for Driving-wheel Brake- 
pistons, . . . ... 245 

Travel, Valve, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 136 
Triple-expansion Stationary Engines, 262 
Trick Valve, see Allen Valve. 

Triple-valve 241 

Draining 224 

Rendering Inoperative . . 244 
Trick Valve-gear, see Allan Valve- 
Gear. 
Try-cocks, . . . . . .66 

Truck 200 

Four-wheel,. . . *201, *202 

Truck-axles, *202 

Distance between, . . . 198 

Truck-flanges, cut, . . . 344 

Truck-frame, .... *202 

Truck-pedestal, .... *202 

Truck, Pony, . 200, 202,*203, 217, 218 

219,*221 

Broken Center-pin, . . . 339' 

Equalizing .... 203 

Truck, Tender . . . 226, 227 

Truck-wheels, . . . *202, 204 

Bearings of .... 205 

Broken 338 



INDEX. 



43 s 



Page. 
Truck-wheel Flange, Broken . . 339 

Try-cocks, 89 

Drip from 67 

Tubes, see Flues. 

Tube-plate, 39 

Tubes, Scoop, see Scoop-tubes, . 226 

Water-grate . . . 33,34 

Tumbling-shaft, . . . 117, 178 

Lifter, Broken .... 328 

Turn-tables, 248 

Turning Power of Compounds, . 253 
Twelve-wheelers, .... 219 

Twin Engines 9 

Two-cylinder Compounds, . . 94 

Advantages of ... . 261 

Starting-power of . . . 257 

Tendency of Connecting-rod, . 208 

Uncoupling Cars without applying 

Brakes 242 

Uncrossed Rods 14S 

Allen Valve-gear . . *160, 161 

Gooch Valve-gear . . *157 

Under-feeding the Boiler, . . 74 

Uneven Exhausts, . - . . . 322 

Urging the Fire, .... 28 

Vacuum Brakes, . , . 231, 247 

Valve, Blocking . ' . . . 3l5 

Blowing, . . . 320, 322 

By-pass for Vauclain Compound *101 

Check, 71, 76 

Cocked, ..... 308 

Cut 308 

Relief, see Relief- valve. 
Slide, see Slide-valve. 
Throttle, see Throttle-valve. 
Valve-arch, .... 128, 129 

Valve-cage, *75 

Valve-chamber, Suction, . . .71 
Valve-chest of Vauclain Compound 



Engine, 
Valve-dividing, 
Valve-gears, 

Allan, 

Equalizing, . 

Fink, 

Gooch, 

Link-motion, . 

Radial, 

Requisites of, . 

Shifting-link, 

Single-eccentric, 

Stephenson, 



94 

. 318 

. 145 

161 

. 151 

♦163, 164 

*156, *15T 

. 145 

. 145 

. 146 

. 146 

*163. 164 

146, 147, 150 



Trick, see Valve-gear, Allan, 

Waldegg, . . . 161, *162 

Walschaert, . . . *165 

with one Eccentric, . . *168 

with two Eccentrics, . *168 

Valve-motion, see also Valve-gear. 145 

of 9£ inch Improved Air-pump 

of Westinghouse Automatic 

Brake, 234 



Page. 

Valve-motion Work, Shifting-link *155 

Valve-position 129, 178 

Affecting Starting 



to Determine 
Valve-rod, .... 

Broken .... 

Disconnecting 
Valve, Safety, see Safety-valve. 
Valve-seats, .... 

Bridge Broken 

Length of . 

Shoulders on . 

Vauclain Compound Engine 

Wear of . . 
Valve stem, Broken . 

Clamping . 

Valve-travel, 

128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 136 

Lessening 
Valve-yoke, 

Broken 
Variation of Lead, 



, 320- 

*155 

, 309' 

330. 

12T 
30S 
135 
12S-, 
*130 
309- 
31 0. 
316. 



145. 
136 
135- 
310 
144, 145- 



134, 



Vauclain Compound Engine . 

*94, 266, *2S4, 285 
Cylinder-cock . . . . *lul 

Valve of *180 

Valve -seat of . . . *130 
Vauclain Crosshead, . . *10& 
Vauclain two-part cast-iron Piston- 
head, *105 

Von Borries Compounds, . . 255 
Vortex Nozzle, 52 



Wagon-top Boiler, . . . .22 

Waist-plug, *18« 

Waist, Boiler, see Boiler-waist, . 57 
Waldegg Valve-gear, . . 161,*162 
Walschaert Valve-gear, . . *165 
Washing out Boiler and Fire-box, 81 
Water, Alkaline . . . .90' 
Carrying over into the Cylin- 
ders 73 

Fire-box for Bad . . . . 42? 
for Boiler-feeding, . . .89 
from Stack of Compounds, . 253 
Height of, in Boiler, . . . S9 
to Carry when Approaching a 
down grade, ... SO 

too Low, 302 

where Carried, . 21S, 225, 226 
Water-column, . 67 

Water-gage, 67 

Water-grates for Bituminous Coal, *3l 
Material for .... 88 

Water-grate Tubes, . . 38 

Water-level, Height of 303 

on an up grade, . . . 301 
Water-supply, Failure of . . 306 

Water-table in Fire-box . . 21 

Water-tubes, 35 

Brick-arch on *45 



432 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Wear of Tires, Limit of . . . 197 

of Wheel-treads . . . 280 

Webb Compound Locomotive, *91, 264 

Wee-wahing 20S 

Weight of Train that may be Haul- 
ed by Compound Engines, . 2S8 
Westinghouse Brakes, . . . 232 
Quick-action Automatic Brake 234 

Wet Rails, 332 

Wheel-base. Measure of . . 1S9 

of Mogul 221 

of Switching Engines . . 225 
of Ten-wheeler, ... 221 

Rigid, 19S 

Rigid, Measure of . 199 

Rigid, Weight Available for 
Traction. . . 208 

Total, ...... 19S 

Wheel-centers, . . . .*191 

to Permit Narrowing Gage, *193 
Wheel-guards, .... 213 

Wheels, *191 

Coning 195 

Driving, Number of . . . 190 
Flattening .... 194 
Holding Tires on 191 

^Leading, Position of . . 199 



Wheels, Truck . 
Wheel-treads, Coning 
Whistle, Air, 

Steam 

Blown Out . 

Chime 
Whistle-work, 
Whistling Exhaust, . 
Wire-drawing, 
Wood, Fire-boxes for 

Grates for, 

Plain Grate for, . 

Stack for, 
Wootten Fire Box, . 
Working Steam Expansively, 
Worsdell Compounds, 
Wrist-pin, see Cross-head Pin. 
Wrist-pin Bearings, . 
Wrist-pins, .... 
Wrought-iron Driving-wheels 
Wrought Iron for Boilers. . 

Yoke. Tight-fitting, 
Yoke, Valve . 

Broken, 
Yokes, Guide . 
Y's, . . 



Page. 

*202, 204 

. 194 

. 212 

<82, 210 

. 298 

211 

*211 

322 

85 

. 19 

30 

*34 

56 

217 

126 

255 

116 

=191 

191 

16 



134, 135 

. 310 

♦109. 110 

243. 249 



20 



INDEX 



TO 



APPENDIX A and B 



Consult also Index Beginning on Page 417. 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Accidents toRichmond-MellinCom- 

pound< 410 

to Schenectady Compound, . 410 
to the Baldwin Compound, . 389 
Age of Applicants for Fireman's 

Position, Sol 

Air-supply, 360 

Applicants for Fireman's Position, 

Age of 351 

Application for Examination, Blank 

Forms for . . . .352 

Arch, Brick 361 

Area, Cylinder, Proportion of . . 389 

Cylinder, Ratio of . . . 394- 

Arm, Lifter, Bent .... 366 

Rocker . *394 

Rocker, Bent ...... 366 

Ash-pan, Examining . . . 374 
Axle, Engine-truck, Broken . . 373 



Babbitt Melted, . 


374 


Back Pressure, . 


. 403 


Baldwin Compound, 
Banking the Fire, . 


. *387 


. 362, 380 


Bell, Engine 


. 357 



Blank Forms for Application for 
Examination .... 352 

Blocked Crosshead. * Figure 201 
on plate X. Opposite page . 368 

Blocked Driving Axle. *Figure206 
on plate X. Opposite page . 368 

Blocked-up Wheel. *Figure 207 on 
plate X. Opposite page . 368 

Blocking Valves, . . . .391 

Blower, 362 

Blowing off, ... 858, 362- 

Boiler-bolts, Loose . 365 

Boiler-check, Leaky . . . .376 
Sticking, 376 

Boiler, Filling 380 

Foaming, 378 

Bolts, Boiler, Broken . . .365 
Pedestal, Pounding in . . 864 
Strap, Loose .... 866 
Wedge, Broken ... 364 

Box, Driving, Broken . . .372 
Rocker, Loose . . . .866 

Brass, Crank-pin, Hot . . .374 
Driving, Broken . . 872 

Engine-truck, Replacing , . 874 
Tender-truck, Replacing . 874 



Page. 

Brick Arch, 361 

Broken Cylinder-head, . . .390 

Driver, 372 

Intercepting- valve Head, . .412 
Main Head, .... 411 
Main Rod, .... 391,402 
Piston-head, . . . 390,403 
Reach Rod. *Figure 200 on 

plate X. Opposite page. . 36S 
Receiver of Compound Engines, 404 

Slide-valve 402 

Springs. * Figure 202 on plate 

X. Opposite page . . 368 
Spring- Hanger. * Figure 203 

on plate X. Opposite page . 368 
Tender-Wheel. * Figure 205 
on plate X. Opposite page . 368 

Tire, 371 

Truck-Wheel. *Figure 204 on 

plate X. Opposhe page . 368 

Valve-rod, . . 389,402,412 

Brooks Compound, . *392, *393, *395 



Center, Getting the Engine on . 366 
Center-pin, Engine-truck, Broken 371 
Check, Boiler, Leaky . . .376 
Boiler. Sticking . . . 37G 
Circular to Locomotive Engineers 

and Firemen, . . . 355 
Coal Consumption, . . . 357, 362 

Wetting 361 

Cocks, Cylinder .... 365, 391 
Color Examination, . . . 852 
Colvin-Wightman Compound, 

*397, *398, *399, *401 

Combining-tubes 376 

Compound, Accidents to Richmond- 

Mellin 410 

Accidents to the Schenectady . 410 
Baldwin- Vauclain - - *S**T 

Brooks-Player . *392, *398, *29S 
Colvin-Wightman 

*397, *39S, *899, *40l 
Engine, Advantage as Regards 
Regenerated Steam . .416 

Engines, 8S9 

Engines, Broken Receiver of 404 
Engines, Horse-power of . . 400 
Engine of F. W. Webb. Plate 
Facing Page . . . .413 



436 



INDEX. 



Page. 
Compound, Four-cylinder. . . 415 
Four-cylinder Tandem . *392 
Mellin *404, *405, *406, *407, *40S 
Pittsburg . *397, *395, *399, *401 
Player . . . *392, *393, *395 
Richmond *404, *405, *406, *407,*408 
R. I. Locomotive Works' . . 402 
Tandem, Effective Pressure in 415 
Tandem, Exhaust of . . . 415 
Tandem, Four-cylinder . . *392 
Two-cylinder .... 415 

Vauclain *387 

Compounds, Grade-climbing with 394 
Horse-power of . . . . 403 
Starting .... 394, *405 
Crank-pin, Brass, Hot . . . 374 
Cross-feeding Lubricant, . . 3S2 
Crosshead, Blocked. *Figure 201 

on plate X. Opposite page . 36S 
Cylinder-area, Proportion of . . 359 

Ratio of 394 

Cylinder-cocks, . . . 365, 370, 391 
Cylinder-cock and Starting-valve . 3S7 
Cylinder-condensation, . . . 416 
Cylinder-head, Broken . . .390 

Cylinder-heads, 379 

Cylinder-valves, .... 396 

Dampers, Examining . . . 374 
Door, Fire-box . . . 360, 361 

Draft, 359 

Driver, Broken .... 372 
Driving Axle, Blocked. *Figure 

206 on plate X. Opposite page 365 
Driving-brass, Broken . . . 372 
Driving-box, Broken . . . 372 
Dry-pipe Joint, Leaking . . . 373 
Dumping Fire, .... 350 
Duties, Firemen's .... 35S 

Eccentric Position, 

Slipped, 

Eccentric-strap, Hot 

Effective Pressure in a Tandem 

Compound 

End, Front, Broken .... 
Engine-bell ..... 
Engineer, Traveling .... 
Engine, Dying on the Road, 

Inspection of ... . 

Keying up a Ten-wheel . 

Repairs. *See plate X. Oppo- 
site page .... 

Slipping 

Engines, Compound. (See under 
Compound.) 

Four-wheel .... 
Engine-truck Axle. Broken . 

Brass, Replacing 

Center-pin. Broken . 

Wheel, Broken .... 
Equalizer, Broken .... 



865 

367 



357 
351 
380 
874 
364 

3 -3 S 
370 



370 
878 
874 
371 
373 
371 



Page. 

Equalizing- valve. Broken . .391 
Examination, Color . . . 352 

Official, of Firemen for Pro- 
motion and of Engineers for 
Employment, Form of . . 349 
Exhaust 390, 412, *400 

Clearance, 396 

Exhaust-nozzle, .... 360 
Exhaust out of Square, . . . 366 
Exhaust-pipe, Loose . . . 366 

Exhaust Steam, 359 

Exhaust-tip Gone, .... 366- 

Keeding, Cross, of Lubricant . . 352 
Feed-valve, Broken . . .382, 
Fire. Banking .... 362, 350 
Fire-box Door, . . . 360, 361 

Fire, Dumping 350 

Firemen's Duties, ... . . 358 

Flues, Leaky 33'. 

Foaming, 379 

Boiler . .... 378 

Form of Examination of Firemen 
for Promotion and of Engi- 
neers for Employment, Official 349- 
Four-cylinder Compound, . . 415 
Tandem Compound, . . .*392 
Four-wheel Engines, . . . 370 
Front End, Broken . . . 375 



Gage-cocks, . . . . 373. 379 

Glass, Water 378 

Grade-climbing, . . . .*407 

with Compounds, . . . 394 

Grates, Examining .... 374 

Guide, Broken .... 373 

Head, Main, Broken . . .411 
Horse-power of Compounds, 
of Compound Engines, 



Injector, Principle of . 
Inspection of Engine, 
Intercepting-valve. 

403. 404. *405. *406, *407, *40S, 411 



400 

375 
374 



Keying up a Mogul, . 
up a Ten-wheel Engine, 

lifter-arm, Bent . 
Lubricator, 



364 
. 364 



Main Rod, Broken . . .391 
Taking down .... 373 

Mellin Compound, 

*404. *405, *406. *407, *408 

Mogul 371, 372, 373 

Keying up 364 

Nozzle, Exhaust .... 360 

Oil-cup 332 

Oil in Boiler .379 



INDEX, 



437 



Page. 

*»acking-rings, .... S69, 379 

Pan, Ash, Examining . . . 374 

Pedestal-bolts, Pointing in . . 364 

Petticoat-oipe, . . . .360 

Pipe, Dry* Joint Leaking . • . 373 

Exhaust, Loose .... 366 

Petticoat . 360 

Steam, Leaky .... 365 

Piston-head, Broken . . 390, 403 

Pittsburg Compound, 

*397, *398, *399, *401 
Player Compound, . *392, *393, *395 

Popping, 358 

Pounding, . 364 

in Wedges 364 

Pressure, Back 403 

Steam 359 

Pumping, 377 

by Towing .... 380 

Itail, Sanding 370 

Reach Rod, Broken . * Figure 200 

on plate X. Opposite page . 368 

Receiver, *405 

Reducing-valve, . *399, 403, *405 
Regenerated Steam, Advantage as 

Regards Compound Engine, 416 
Repairs, Engine. *See plate X. 

Opposite page . . . 368 
Reversing-Device, , . . . *401 
Richmond Compound, 

*404, *405, *406, *407, *408 
R. I. Locomotive Works' Com- 
pound, . 402 

Rings, Packing 379 

Rocker-arms, 394 

Rocker-arm, Bent .... 366 
Rocker-box, Loose . . . 366 
Rod, Main, Broken . . . .402 

Main, Taking down . . 373 

Valve, Broken . . 389, 402, 412 
Rods, Side, Taking down . . 370 

Strap, Loose .... 366 

Sanding the Rails,. . . . 370 

Scale, 379 

Setting Wedges, .... 364 
Side-rods, Taking down . . .370 
Sight and Hearing, . . . 354 
Sight-feed Glass, Broken . . . 382 

Signals, 357 

Slide-valves, *392 

Smoke 358 

Obviating .... 361 

Springs, Broken. *Figure 202 on 

plate X. Opposite page . 36S 
Stack, Covering in Engine-house, 381 

Dimensions, .... 8.i9 
Starting Compounds, . . 394, *405 
Starting-valve and Cylinder-cock, . 3S7 
Stay-bolts 360 



Page. 
Steam-chest, Broken . . . .369 

Valve Blocked in. *Figure 208 
on plate X. Opposite page . 368 
Steam Course, . . 391, *394, 411 

Exhaust 359 

Lap 396 

Steam-pipe, Leaky .... 365 
Steam-pressure, . . . 359 

Steam, Regenerated, in a Compound 

Engine 416 

Strap-bolts, Loose .... 366 
Strap-rods, Loose . . . . 366 

Tandem Compound Exhaust, . 415 
Compound, Four-cylinder . .*392 
Tender-truck Brass, Replacing . 374 
Tender-wheel, Broken. *Figure 
205 on plate X. Opposite 

page 363 

Throttle 411 

Stuck Open .... 373 
Tip, Exhaust, Gone, . . . .366 

Tire, Broken 371 

Traveling Engineer, .... 351 
Truck-wheel, Broken. * Figure 204 

on plate X. Opposite page . 368 
Tubes, Combining. . . .376 
Two-cylinder Compound, . . 415 



Valve, Equalizing, Broken . 
Feed, Broken 



891 



Intercepting . 403, 404, 405, 411 
Intercepting Head, Broken . 412 
Reducing . . *399, 403, *405 
Slide, Broken .... 402 
Valve Blocked in Steam Chest. 
* Figure 208 on plate X. 
Opposite page . . . 368 

Valves, Blocking .... 391 

Cylinder 396 

Slide, *392 

Valve-rod, Broken . 389, 402, 412 
Valve-seat, Broken .... 369 
Valve-stem, Broken . . . 369 
Valve-yoke, Broken . . . .366 
Vauclain Compound, . . . *3S7 

"Water in Cylinder, .... 379 

Water-glass, 37S 

Water-level, 378 

Webb, F. W., Compound Engine. 

Plates Facing Page . .413 
Wedge-bolts, Broken . . . 364 
Wedges, Pounding in 364 

Setting, 364 

Wetting the Coal, . . . .361 
Wheel, Blocked-up. *Figure 207 

on plate X. Opposite page . 868 
Wheel, Engine-truck, Broken . 378 
Wreck, Duties in Case of . . . 375 

Yoke, Valve, Broken . . .866 



JUST PUBLISHED. 

Eighteenth Edition. Greatly Enlarged and Revised. 




AIR BRAKE 
CATECHISM. 



BY ROBERT H. BLACKALL. Air Brake Inspector and 
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312 Pages, Fully Illustrated and Containing Two Large 
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This work is fully illustrated and contains TWO LARGE 
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Triple Valve; Freight Equipment; Piston Travel; American 
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A PRACTICAL TREATISE FOR 

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By WILLIAM M. BARR, M. B. 

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_V - 



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How to Run a Locomotive. 
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PARTIAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

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Gas, Gasoline and Oil 

ENGINES. 



BY GARDNER D. HISCOX, M. E. 

413 Pages. 312 Illustrations and Diagrams. 

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SPECIAL CHAPTERS ON 
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BY ROBERT GRIMSHAW. 

Containing 400 Pages and 222 Illustrations. Handsomely 

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CONTENTS. 

Lathe Speed; Lead Screw; Grinding Lathe Centers and 
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